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史前/古代文化與文明小檔案 –– 開欄文
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瀏覽8,151 ｜回應52｜推薦2 |
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我最近讀到兩篇介紹文化/文明的報導。由於我在寫一篇討論建劬兄《走出歐洲中心主義的心路歷程 -- 命運共同體 VS 文明衝突論》的文章，順帶把它們轉登在此處做為參考資料。我不日會提出我對「文化」和「文明」淺見，在該文中將說明「文化/文明」一詞的用法。
過些時間，我會把關於中國考古工作的資訊整理一下，發表在此欄。
本文於 修改第 5 次
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9000年前土耳其的母系社區 - Cara Tabachnick
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請參考本欄2025/06/22貼文。
Ancient city possibly ruled by females over 9,000 years ago, researchers say
Cara Tabachnick, 06/29/25
An ancient city was most likely ruled by females living in a "matriarchal society" more than 9,000 years ago, according to a study published in Science this week.
Researchers extracted the ancient genomes of more than 130 skeletons from 35 different houses at Çatalhöyük, an ancient city considered one of the most well-preserved Neolithic settlements in southern Anatolia in Turkey. About 395 skeletons, a mix of males and females, were found in grave pits under the floors of the city's mudbrick houses. Occupied for more than 1,000 years (9000 to 8000 BCE), the city was known for its female figurines, possible representatives of a "Mother Goddess" cult and signs of a matriarchal society.
A team of geneticists, archaeologists, and biological anthropologists used cutting-edge technology to analyze the DNA of skeletons over 12 years and found that maternal lineage had a key role in connecting household members, as represented by burials within each building.
During the early years in Çatalhöyük, family members were buried together, but over time, habits changed, and researchers found many of the dead had no biological connection. Where there was a genetic connection, it was through the female line, suggesting husbands relocated to the wife's household upon marriage, researchers said.
An excavation site is seen at the ancient city of Çatalhöyük. / Credit: Serhat Cetinkaya/Anadolu via Getty Images 請至原網頁觀看照片
Using genetic sequencing, researchers estimated that 70 to 100% of the time, female offspring remained connected to buildings, whereas adult male offspring may have moved away. There was also a clear pattern of preferential treatment toward females, with findings showing five times more grave goods offered to females than to males.
"We need to move away from our Western bias that assumes all societies are patrilineal. Many cultures, including some Indigenous Australian groups, pass identity, land rights, and responsibilities through the mother's line — a matrilineal system," study co-author Dr. Eline Schotsmans, a research fellow at Australia's University of Wollongong's School of Science, said in a statement.
These findings come several months after researchers studying social networks in Celtic society in Britain before the Roman invasion gathered genetic evidence from a late Iron Age cemetery and found that women were closely related, while unrelated men tended to come into the community from elsewhere, likely after marriage.
Using an examination of ancient DNA recovered from 57 graves in Dorset in southwest England, their study, published in the journal Nature, shows that two-thirds of the individuals were descended from a single maternal lineage. This suggests that women had some control of land and property, as well as strong social support, researchers said.
Researchers said upon the release of their findings, "It is possible that maternal ancestry was the primary shaper of group identities."
Breaking down major Supreme Court ruling on nationwide injunctions
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考古學家發現消失1,000年文化廟宇遺址 - Christopher Plain
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Scientists Discover Ancient Temple From ‘Lost Civilization’ That Mysteriously Disappeared Over 1,000 Years Ago
Christopher Plain, 06/25/25
Penn State University scientists have discovered the ruins of an ancient temple in the Bolivian Andes built by an enigmatic ‘lost’ civilization known as the Tiwanaku, which mysteriously vanished from the region more than 1,000 years ago.
The team behind the historic discovery says the temple’s ruins will help shed more light on this mysterious culture, which many believe was one of the earliest advanced civilizations to inhabit the region during its prime.
José Capriles, a Penn State associate professor of anthropology and the lead author of a study detailing the research team’s findings, said that the lost civilization of Tiwanaku flourished for several centuries before it collapsed “sometime around 1000 CE.” By the time the Incas conquered the Andes in the 15th century, Capriles says the Tiwanaku civilization was essentially “in ruin.”
“At its peak, it boasted a highly organized societal structure, leaving behind remnants of architectural monuments like pyramids, terraced temples and monoliths, most of which are distributed in sites around Lake Titicaca,” the professor said.
Before making the discovery, the team noticed one plot of land in a well-studied area that had not yet been mapped. According to a press release, they decided to employ several satellite mapping techniques and images to “visualize” the unmapped area.
“Because the features are very faint, we blended various satellite images together,” Capriles said. The team also conducted several unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) flights to acquire what the professor termed “better pictures.”
Surface features spotted at Palaspata, a temple of the Tiwanaku lost civilization that disappeared over 1,000 years ago. Credit: José Capriles / Penn State. Creative Commons 請至原網頁觀看照片
After collecting all the data, Capriles’ team used a technique called photogrammetry to construct a three-dimensional site profile. The anthropology professor said this high-quality composite, combining data from all the varying sources, allowed his group to get a “more detailed rendering” of the temple structure and the site’s overall topography.
The team highlighted one compelling feature: a series of stone alignments that they say “revealed” the ancient temple of Palaspata. According to the release, Palaspata is also the native name for the area where the temple was found.
More detailed analysis revealed that the temple complex, built over 1,000 years ago by a lost civilization, was roughly 125 meters long and 145 meters wide. 15 “quadrangular enclosures” were arranged within the temple grounds around what the team termed an “inner courtyard.”
The researchers developed a reconstruction to reveal what the ancient temple might have looked like. Credit: José Capriles / Penn State. Creative Commons. 請至原網頁觀看照片
The researchers said the site was known by locals but hadn’t previously been explored by scientists due to its “unassuming” location at the top of a small hill. The temple is also located roughly 130 miles south of Tiwanaku’s established historical center, making its discovery even more fortuitous.
Surprisingly, Capriles said Palaspata’s location was likely strategic. For example, the site was the connection point of three “main” trade routes during the time this lost civilization was flourishing. The researcher said these three distinct trade routes also represented three “vastly different” ecosystems. The northern route connected them to the “productive” highlands around Lake Titicaca, the more arid Altiplano area, which was “ideal for herding llamas” to the west, and the “agriculturally productive” eastern Andean valleys of Cochabamba were to the east.
The team also found numerous fragments of keru cups, used for drinking a traditional maize beer called chicha, on the temple’s surface. Because the maize used to make Chicha was not a local product, the professor said its discovery at the site “underscores the temple’s importance in facilitating access to various goods, including food, and connecting different culinary traditions.”
The surface of the temple contained numerous fragments of keru cups used for drinking chicha, a traditional maize beer, during agricultural feasts and celebrations, Credit: José Capriles / Penn State. Creative Commons. 請至原網頁觀看照片
As previously noted, the researchers think Palaspata’s layout indicated the site likely served a religious function in the Tiwanaku culture. For example, the temple’s alignment may mean the area was used to perform rituals at the solar equinox, the longest day of the year, when the sun is directly overhead at this location. Capriles said 1,000 years ago commerce and religion were also intertwined in this ancient Andean civilization, meaning the access to trade routes supports the temple’s likely religious function.
“Most economic and political transactions had to be mediated through divinity, because that would be a common language that would facilitate various individuals cooperating,” he explained, noting that religion was often the “common ground” that connected different groups.
Justo Ventura Guarayo, the mayor of the municipality of Caracollo where the site is located, said findings like Palaspata are significant since “they highlight a crucial aspect of our local heritage that had been completely overlooked.”
“This discovery is vital for our community, and we believe its documentation will be invaluable for promoting tourism and showcasing our region’s rich history,” Guarayo added.
Following the site’s discovery and its connection to the lost civilization of Tiwanaku, the mayor says efforts to ensure the site is protected and preserved are already underway, The plans are expected to include state and national authorities working under the “guidance” of archaeology experts like Professor Capriles, who says learning more about this mysterious culture and how far their influence extended across the region over 1,000 years ago before disappearing into history merely requires the right approach.
“With more insight into the past of this ancient site, we get a window into how people managed cooperation, and how we can materially see evidence of political and economic control,” he said. “There’s still so much to discover that we don’t know about, and that could be hiding in plain sight. It just requires opening your eyes to see what’s out there.”
Christopher Plain is a Science Fiction and Fantasy novelist and Head Science Writer at The Debrief. Follow and connect with him on X, learn about his books at plainfiction.com, or email him directly at christopher@thedebrief.org.
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中國石器時代的一個母系社區 - Kristina Killgrove
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Women likely ruled in Stone Age China, DNA analysis of 4,500-year-old skeletons reveals
Genetic analysis of 60 people buried in a Stone Age cemetery has revealed two clans headed by women that spanned 10 generations.
Kristina Killgrove, 06/21/25
The Stone Age site of Fujia in eastern China produced two cemeteries and pottery. (Image credit: Wang et al. / CC BY 4.0) 請至原往右觀看照片和地圖
Women headed communities in eastern China about 4,500 years ago, a DNA analysis reveals.
While analyzing the ancient DNA of skeletons buried in Stone Age cemeteries in China, archaeologists discovered that the society was organized in an extremely rare way: Everyone belonged to one of two clans headed by women, and people were buried in their maternal clans for at least 10 generations.
At the archaeological site of Fujia in eastern China, researchers discovered two cemeteries roughly 330 feet (100 meters) apart flanking an ancient residential area. More than 500 burials were excavated and radiocarbon-dated to between 2750 and 2500 B.C.
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In a study published June 4 in the journal Nature, an international team of researchers detailed their analysis of the DNA of 60 skeletons discovered at Fujia — 14 from the north cemetery and 46 from the south cemetery.
All 14 people from the north cemetery shared the same type of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is transmitted only from mother to child. This suggests that all of the people had the same maternal lineage, the researchers wrote in the study.
In the south cemetery, the researchers identified a different mitochondrial DNA lineage that was shared by 44 of the 46 people they tested. And when the researchers analyzed the Y chromosomes from the male skeletons, they found a high degree of diversity. Together, those findings suggest that the fathers of those buried in the cemeteries came from different lineages while the mothers were related.
"By integrating mtDNA and Y-chromosome analyses, we provide evidence that most individuals at Fujia, irrespective of their sex, were buried according to their maternal lineage," the researchers wrote in the study. In particular, both teenage and adult males were buried exclusively in their maternal clans, which "aligns with the common norms of a matrilineal society," according to the study.
Such findings of ancient societies organized along maternal lines are rare. Only three other studies have used DNA analysis to identify matrilineal communities: Chaco Canyon in New Mexico, Celtic elites in southern Germany, and the Durotriges in Iron Age Britain. Similar practices, however, have been found in contemporary Southeast Asian matrilineal societies.
Deeper analysis revealed high rates of "consanguinity" — marrying a blood relative — over the span of 10 generations. While many people likely married their second or third cousins, four individuals showed signs of mating with first cousins or closer relatives.
While such consanguinity may not be the preferred marriage pattern, it inevitably occurs when you have small, closed-off societies, the researchers wrote.
This "unique social organization" has not been found previously in Stone Age East Asian populations, according to the researchers.
"It is exciting to find a matrilineal society in Neolithic China," Yu Dong, an archaeologist at Shandong University who was not involved in the study, said in a statement.
The Fujia study provides key insights into the social and environmental conditions during the transition from smaller to more complex societies, the researchers wrote. Future DNA and archaeological research should help clarify matrilineal social organization in early human societies, they added.
Kristina Killgrove is a staff writer at Live Science with a focus on archaeology and paleoanthropology news. Her articles have also appeared in venues such as Forbes, Smithsonian, and Mental Floss. Killgrove holds postgraduate degrees in anthropology and classical archaeology and was formerly a university professor and researcher. She has received awards from the Society for American Archaeology and the American Anthropological Association for her science writing.
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4萬年前東南亞島嶼居民使用先進造船工具 -- Tim Newcomb
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Archaeologists Found Ancient Tools That Contradict the Timeline of Civilization
The math doesn’t add up.
Tim Newcomb, 06/07/25
Advanced Seafaring Found in Ancient Southeast Asia John Seaton Callahan - Getty Images 請至原網頁觀看照片
* Stone tool analysis of sites in Southeast Asia provided evidence that the area was a technological leader in seafaring.
* Archaeology supports that 40,000 years ago, the people living in Southeast Asia were well-versed in boatbuilding and open-sea fishing.
* This research puts Southeast Asia ahead of Europe and Africa in technological process.
In the history of studying the proliferation of humanity across the globe, there has long been one question that has stumped researchers: How did the islands of Southeast Asia (ISEA) become so well-inhabited so long ago?
It probably required technological seafaring advancements beyond what was considered likely during the Paleolithic era. But those experts may have a surprising new answer thanks to research that shows the ancient people of the Philippines and ISEA may have mastered seafaring well before anyone else.
The pivotal archaeological evidence comes in the form of stone tools excavated at sites in the Philippines, Indonesia, and Timor-Leste, showing strong evidence that as far back as 40,000 years ago, there was a technological sophistication from these ancient seafarers that rivals much later civilizations. In a study published in the Journal of Archaeological Science, researchers from Ateneo de Manila University challenge the accepted belief that Paleolithic technical progress was centered in Africa and Europe.
Proving seafaring history represents a tricky endeavor, since organic wood and fiber that would have likely been used in constructing Paleolithic seacraft rarely survive in the archaeological record. These stone tools offer a new way in. The most recent discovery, according to the study, shows traces of plant processing that features the “extraction of fibers necessary for making ropes, nets, and bindings essential for boatbuilding and open-sea fishing.”
Add in the discovery of fishing hooks, gorges, net weights, and the remains of deep-ocean fish such as tuna and sharks, and these archeological sites are a rich exploration of what is obviously a robust seafaring culture.
“The remains of large predatory pelagic fish at these sites indicate the capacity for advanced seafaring and knowledge of the seasonality and migration routes of those fish species,” the study authors wrote. The collection of fish and tool remains “indicates the need for strong and well-crafted cordage for ropes and fishing lines to catch the marine fauna.”
As the archaeological finds point toward a sophisticated method of deep-ocean fishing, the study authors believe the ancient seafarers constructed boats from organic materials and held them together with plant-based ropes. That same rope technology was then adapted for the actual fishing.
While widely accepted that the presence of fossils and artifacts across a range of islands provides evidence that early modern humans moved across the open sea, the study’s authors fight against the prevailing theory that the prehistoric migrations were passive sea drifters on bamboo rafts. Rather, they posit that the movement came from highly skilled navigators equipped with the knowledge and technology to travel to remote locations over deep waters.
“The identification of boat-building materials through direct or indirect evidence is vital in understanding movements across and within island environments,” the authors wrote in the study.
“The presence of such advanced maritime technology in prehistoric ISEA highlights the ingenuity of early Philippine peoples and their neighbors,” the authors said in a statement from the university, “whose boat-building knowledge likely made the region a center for technological innovations tens of thousands of years ago and laid the foundations for the maritime traditions that still thrive in the region today.”
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8000年前雕像--T. Newcomb
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Scientists Found an 8,000-Year-Old Figurine in a Cave. Its Engravings Tell the Story of an Ancient Culture.
But where’s the face?
Tim Newcomb, 05/01/25
Scientists Found an Ancient Figurine With No Face Diy13 - Getty Images 請至原網頁觀看照片
A two-inch Mesolithic stone figurine from Azerbaijan tells a tale of cultural growth.
* It’s the first cultural find from the area of the South Caucasus.
* The sandstone figurine depicts a human, and stone tools were used to create the artwork.
There’s no face on the oldest piece of art—a small sandstone figurine of a human from the Mesolithic era (中石器時代) —ever found in one region of modern-day Azerbaijan.
In a study published by Archaeological Research in Asia, a team of archaeologists from both Japan and Azerbaijan showed how they used technology to investigate the details of the stone figurine that helps tell the story of the cultural shifts from Mesolithic to Neolithic.
“Its stylistic features considerably differ from those of Neolithic human figures in the region,” the study authors wrote, “providing a valuable reference point for understanding the cultural processes in symbolic aspects during the Mesolithic-Neolithic interface in the South Caucasus.”
The archaeologists discovered the figurine in the Damjili Cave, which was first explored by archaeologists in 1953. Layers within the cave show a high density of Neolithic settlements, and trace life back to Middle Paleolithic and Mesolithic times.
The figurine in question (dubbed Unit 5.2) was initially almost discarded when discovered amidst a layer of sediment along the bank of the Kura River—why would a ovular chunk of sandstone be anything other than a rock laying on the bed of a river? Fortunately, someone noticed the faint lines hewn into the rock that were clearly the work of an artist. The team needed microscopic analysis to really see the engraving patterns (the only modification made to the stone). “The overall pattern suggests that the artifact represents a human figure,” the authors wrote.
Carbon dating of the artifact places it between 6400 and 6100 B.C., but it required computed tomography analysis, X-ray fluorescence analysis, and scanning electron microscope analysis to really make the cultural value and stylistic differences from Neolithic examples clear.
One side of the figurine has more complicated engravings, likely indicating it’s the front of the figure. At two inches long, half an inch wide, and about a third of an inch thick, the craftsmanship was detailed and required stone tools for engraving. Vertical lines on the top of the stone likely represent hair. There’s also an explicitly delineated horizontal line across the hair that researchers believe was a hairband or edge of a cap, especially since the top of the head is not decorated. The figurine lacks facial features and there’s no way to discern the intended sex of the figurine.
The lower body is less intensely decorated, but does have three horizontal lines that are likely a belt and vertical lines representing a loincloth or apron. The team found reddish areas with a higher level of iron content, opening up the possibility red pigments were part of the original design.
“The engraving seems to have been performed carefully in most parts, representing the high sophistication of the craftsman, although different intensities of the work are also observable,” the team wrote. Various depths and widths were used in the engraving style, showing a deviation in strokes. “The most intense traces of engraving on the front side of the head suggest the manufacturer’s emphasis on the head, although the details of the face of the figurine were not depicted,” they wrote.
Alongside the figurine, the team found remnants of stone fireplaces, bone, and flaked stones, but ground-stone artifacts are rare. “The stone figure from Unit 5.2 is a rather exceptional find,” they wrote.
The style suggests a local tradition of artistic representation, although there could be cultural influence from Southwest Asia. “This specimen is unique in the prehistory of the South Caucasus,” the team wrote. “We hope that this research will provide a cautionary note when investigating small stone items from sites during the introduction of the agropastoral socio-economy in the South Caucasus. More discovery of Mesolithic portable arts should certainly contribute to our better understanding of the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in the South Caucasus.”
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舊石器時代文化一頁 ---- Jess Thomson
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請參見《史前人的智慧》(該欄2024/08/30)。
25,000-year-old mammoth bones reveal culture of ancient humans
Jess Thomson, 03/25/25
Archaeologists have discovered the remains of at least five woolly mammoths at a site in Austria. The remains suggest that ancient humans processed the mammoths' ivory tusks 25,000 years ago.
The mammoth remains discovered in Austria. (Image credit: ÖAW-ÖAI/Marc Händel) 請至原網頁觀看照片
Scientists have unearthed the remains of five enormous 25,000-year-old woolly mammoths in Austria — and they appear to have been hunted and butchered by ancient humans.
The mammoths were discovered during an excavation of the Langmannersdorf site, about 40 miles (65 kilometers) west of Vienna; the bones and tusks were clustered in two distinct zones about 49 feet (15 meters) apart, researchers said in a statement.
In one of the two zones, the research team found the mammoth bones of several individuals piled up together, many of which had marks and scars from human tools — a sign they had been butchered — as well as stone tools scattered nearby.
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In the second zone, the team unearthed the remains of at least three separate mammoths. They found the fragmented and whole remains of the mammoth's enormous tusks clustered together, separate from the bones, which shows Paleolithic (舊石器時代) humans were likely processing the mammoths' ivory. This ivory could have been used to make spearheads, the archaeologists suggested.
"The fact that we found not just individual bones here, but intensively used areas in which several animals were processed, has more than exceeded our expectations," Marc Händel, an archaeologist at the Austrian Archaeological Institute of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (ÖAW), said in a statement. Previous evidence has shown that ancient humans used mammoth ivory to craft tools, such as implements to make ropes, ornaments, accessories and spears and arrowheads for hunting.
Woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius) were large, elephant-like mammals that measured about 11 feet tall (3.5 meters) and had huge, curved tusks. They roamed across North America, Europe and Asia during the last ice age, which ended around 11,700 years ago.
Archaeologists unearth the mammoth bones. (Image credit: ÖAW-ÖAI/Marc Händel) 請至原網頁觀看照片
These enormous animals were a crucial resource for Paleolithic hunter-gatherers; they provided food, bones for tools and shelter, and hides for warmth. Most went extinct around 10,000 years ago, likely due to climate change and human hunting, but small populations survived on isolated islands until about 4,000 years ago.
The Langmannersdorf site was first excavated between 1904 and 1907, and evidence of two mammoth hunter camps was unearthed in 1919 and 1920. In the years since, researchers from across Europe have worked at the site to discover more relics, in hopes of better understanding the relationship between ancient humans and woolly mammoths.
Around 25,000 years ago, just before the peak of the last ice age about 20,000 years ago, herds of mammoths are thought to have used the Perschling Valley in Austria as a migration route, where they grazed on grasses and shrubs as they traveled. The discovery of the mammoth processing site in Langmannersdorf indicates that ancient humans understood the annual movement of the mammoths and hunted them specifically when they were passing through the valley, the researchers said.
This discovery therefore gives researchers important insight into the hunting culture of humans during the last ice age.
Researchers at the ÖAW will study the mammoth bones and tusks, as well as the stone tools, to determine more details about the lives of these ancient creatures and the humans who hunted them. The remains will then be stored at the Natural History Museum in Vienna, and others will be displayed at the Perschlingtaler Heimatmuseum (Perschling Valley Local History Museum).
Jess Thomson, Live Science Contributor, is a freelance journalist. She previously worked as a science reporter for Newsweek, and has also written for publications including VICE, The Guardian, The Cut, and Inverse. Jess holds a Biological Sciences degree from the University of Oxford, where she specialised in animal behavior and ecology.
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考古與演化：150萬年前的獸骨工具 -- Ashley Strickland
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Archaeologists uncovered a cache of 1.5 million-year-old bone tools. They’re trying to determine who made them
Ashley Strickland, CNN, 03/05/25
Researchers study the markings left by ancient human ancestors when they used elephant and hippopotamus bones to create tools 1.5 million years ago. CSIC 請至原網頁觀看照片
CNN — Archaeologists have uncovered a collection of bone tools in northern Tanzania that were shaped by ancient human ancestors 1.5 million years ago, making them the oldest known bone tools by about 1 million years, according to new research.
Researchers have unearthed stone tools that date back to at least 3.3 million years ago, but before this discovery, the oldest known bone tools were found at European sites believed to be 250,000 to 500,000 years old.
The 27 fragments of limb bones, most from hippopotamuses and elephants, show evidence of having been sharpened and shaped, likely with the aid of stone pieces. Some of the bones reach up to nearly 15 inches (38 centimeters) long.
The bone tools, which all appear to have been systematically produced in the same style as one another, were found in Tanzania’s Olduvai Gorge. The site is also where archaeologists have previously unearthed artifacts related to some of the first stone tools crafted by early hominins, or human ancestors who walked upright.
The new findings, presented in a study published Wednesday in the journal Nature, suggest that our ancient human relatives applied the same techniques they used to make stone tools to specific bones they selected from large mammals. Researchers believe the tools are evidence that hominins long ago were capable of abstract reasoning, or the ability to think critically by identifying patterns and making connections.
“This expansion of technological potential indicates advances in the cognitive abilities and mental structures of these hominins, who knew how to incorporate technical innovations by adapting their knowledge of stone work to the manipulation of bone remains,” said lead study author Dr. Ignacio de la Torre, scientist at the Spanish National Research Council’s Institute of History and codirector of the Olduvai Gorge Archaeology Project, in a statement.
Windows into human evolution
Olduvai Gorge is in East Africa, which is home to some of the earliest evidence of both tool production and use among early human ancestors. It is part of a UNESCO World Heritage site often referred to as the “Cradle of Humankind” and is “renowned for its unparalleled contribution to our understanding of early human evolution,” said study coauthor Jackson Njau, associate professor in the department of Earth and atmospheric sciences at Indiana University.
“As a Tanzanian native, I’ve been captivated since my high school days by the groundbreaking discoveries made at renowned Olduvai Gorge site in northern Tanzania,” Njau said. “The iconic work of the famous archaeologists Drs. Louis and Mary Leakey, which discovered early human fossils … and the world’s first human stone tools ignited my fascination and fueled the dreams of countless young students, myself included, who aspired to follow in their footsteps.”
The site has a timeline spanning 2 million to 20,000 years ago, and researchers have uncovered the remains of ancient human ancestors such as Homo habilis, Homo erectus and prehistoric Homo sapiens, or modern humans, he said. The archaeological record also includes cultural advancements and the evolution of toolmaking, Njau added.
During the Oldowan age, a time period named for stone artifacts found in the gorge, ancient humans used tools created by striking one rock against another to chip off flakes, a process that resulted in a basic shape. These simple tools were made between 2.7 million and 1.5 million years ago.
The hand ax emerged during a shift in early human innovation about 1.7 million years ago in a time called the Acheulean age that lasted until about 150,000 years ago. The large and heavy, pointed almond-shaped stones required complex technical ability called knapping, or chipping away small flakes to create sharp edges, for their production, de la Torre said.
Ancient craftsmanship on display
The Olduvai Gorge bone tools were first spotted in 2018 during excavations carried out between 2015 and 2022. Researchers narrowed in on a specific gully in the gorge after first finding hominin teeth on the surface during a field survey between 2010 and 2011, which Njao helped lead with Robert Blumenschine, professor emeritus of evolutionary anthropology at Rutgers University in New Jersey.
Elephant bones resulted in the largest tools, ranging from 8.6 to 15 inches (22 to 38 centimeters) long and 3.1 inches to 6 inches (8 to 15 centimeters) wide, while the hippo bones made for slightly smaller tools spanning from 7 to 12 inches (18 to 30 centimeters) long and 2.3 to 3.1 inches (6 to 8 centimeters) wide.
The same knapping techniques were applied to bones made exclusively from the dense, strong long bones of large animals. The tools, mainly made from bones freshly collected from carcasses, shed “new light on the almost unknown world of early hominin bone technology,” the study authors said.
The 27 bone tools that archaeologists uncovered in Tanzania varied in size depending on which animal from which they originated. CSIC 請至原網頁觀看照片
“The tools show evidence that their creators carefully worked the bones, chipping off flakes to create useful shapes,” said study coauthor Dr. Renata Peters, associate professor at the University College London’s Institute of Archaeology, in a statement. “We were excited to find these bone tools from such an early timeframe. It means that human ancestors were capable of transferring skills from stone to bone, a level of complex cognition that we haven’t seen elsewhere for another million years.”
The bones add new evidence that early hominin cultures were experiencing a technological transition about 1.5 million years ago, de la Torre said.
“Prior to our discovery, the technological transition from the Oldowan to the Acheulean was limited to the study of stone tools,” de la Torre said. “This discovery leads us to assume that early humans significantly expanded their technological options, which until then were limited to the production of stone tools and now allowed new raw materials to be incorporated into the repertoire of potential artifacts.”
An advanced comprehension of toolmaking and the ability to apply it to different materials suggests that ancient human ancestors had greater cognitive abilities than previously believed, the researchers said.
New mysteries emerge
Previous discoveries of bone tools have occurred in isolated instances across Europe and Asia, but the 27 bones found at Olduvai Gorge seem to imply mass production, the study authors said. While the bone tool kits found later in Europe, dated to 400,000 years ago, are much more refined, the Olduvai Gorge tools were more effective for heavy-duty tasks, Njau said.
While there is no direct evidence to show how the tools were used, the researchers said they believe hominins employed them to strip down animal carcasses for food and to produce new tools.
Hominins left distinct markings and created sharp edges by knapping the bones, or chipping off flakes using stones. CSIC 請至原網頁觀看照片
The researchers also don’t know which specific human ancestor species made the tools because no hominin remains were found with the bones. But previous research conducted at the site has suggested that Homo erectus and the hominin species Paranthropus boisei lived in the region.
Human ancestors were likely inspired to make tools from bone due the abundance of animal carcasses available across the landscape, especially during seasonal migrations, Njau said, while rocks may have been harder to come by depending on where the hominins lived. But bone tools are scarcer in the archaeological record because organic material such as bone can break down more easily, he said.
Dr. Briana Pobiner, paleoanthropologist and research scientist in the Human Origins Program at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, said the study underscores the importance that tools made from materials other than stone had for our ancestors — and how these artifacts can be “essentially archaeologically invisible.” Pobiner was not involved in the study.
“That there is a collection of 27 bone tools, and not just one or a few, suggests that hominins 1.5 million years ago (at least in this one place) were able to successfully transfer their knowledge of how to knap stone to knapping bone,” Pobiner said. “To me, this signals that toolmaking was becoming an increasingly important part of our ancestors’ lives. And once again, we should be looking in museum collections for more evidence of hominin behavior — in this case, bone tool manufacture — earlier than we might have previously expected.”
Related article
Puzzling fossils unearthed in China may rewrite the human story
First ancient fossil of Homo naledi child found in the Cradle of Humankind
Early human fossils found in cave are a million years older than expected
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20,000-year-old evidence of ancient 'vehicles' discovered in New Mexico
Patrick Pester, 02/28/25
Ancient footprints and drag marks at White Sands National Park in New Mexico suggest the earliest known Americans dragged wooden travois-like vehicles.
Researchers have found evidence that the earliest North Americans made makeshift "vehicles" out of wooden poles. (Image credit: Gabriel Ugueto/Bournemouth University) 請至原網頁觀看照片
The earliest known North Americans used wooden "vehicles" to transport goods, and possibly even people, more than 20,000 years ago, a new study suggests.
Researchers discovered sled-like drag marks alongside ancient footprints at White Sands National Park in New Mexico — potentially the oldest human footprint site in North America.
Indigenous people consulted in the research suggested that the marks were left by some kind of travois, a wooden frame made from two poles bound together, according to the study, which was published in the January edition of the journal Quaternary Science Advances.
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Indigenous groups of the Great Plains (which includes part of New Mexico) used travois pulled by dogs (and later horses) to transport their houses, furniture and other possessions at the time of early contact with European colonizers around 500 years ago. Children and older women also rode in them at that time, according to the study. Based on the size and positioning of the ancient footprints found next to the drag marks, adults likely pulled the travois while children followed, the researchers said.
"Many people will be familiar with pushing a shopping trolley around a supermarket, moving from location to location with children hanging on," study lead author Matthew Bennett, a professor of environmental and geographical sciences at Bournemouth University in the U.K., said in a statement. "This appears to be the ancient equivalent, but without wheels."
Bennett noted that researchers know our ancestors must have used something to carry their possessions as they migrated around the world, but these wooden vehicles have since rotted away. The recently discovered drag marks provide the first indication of how prehistoric people moved heavy loads before wheels, he said.
Researchers began excavating the drag marks site in 2020. At White Sands, trackways are preserved in ancient dried mud buried beneath sediment. Many millennia ago, people trudged through this landscape alongside mammoths, giant ground sloths, camels and many other ice age creatures.
The drag marks consist of lines in the ground extending upward of 165 feet (50 meters). Some of the marks were single lines, which could have been made by two poles bound together at the end (A-shaped). In other cases, there were two parallel lines, likely made by two poles crossed in the middle (X-shaped), according to the statement.
The researchers experimented with their own travois in Poole Harbour in the U.K.(Image credit: Bournemouth University) 請至原網頁觀看照片
Drag marks showing two parallel lines.(Image credit: Bournemouth University) 請至原網頁觀看照片
Two drag marks crossing.(Image credit: Bournemouth University) 請至原網頁觀看照片
White Sands National Park in New Mexico is potentially the oldest human trackway site in North America.(Image credit: Bournemouth University) 請至原網頁觀看照片
Indigenous people of the Great Plains typically used an A-shaped wooden frame with a connection of bars or net-like baskets to hold objects in place, according to the study. The researchers suspected that ancient people in the region did the same. To test their theory, the team made their own travois out of wooden poles and dragged them along mudflats in the U.K. and along the coast of Maine.
"In our experiments, our footprints and lines in the mud from the poles had the same appearance as the fossilised examples that we found in New Mexico," Bennett said.
Bennett and his colleagues previously dated the human footprints at White Sands to around 21,000 to 23,000 years ago — challenging the previous assumption that humans arrived in North America 13,000 to 16,000 years ago. Not all researchers agree on the site's age, but the study authors noted that any dating debate shouldn't distract from these newly identified features demonstrating ancient Indigenous practices, whatever their age.
"Every discovery that we uncover in White Sands adds to our understanding of the lives of the first people to settle in the Americas," co-author of the new study Sally Reynolds, a mammalian paleontologist at Bournemouth University, said in the statement. "These people were the first migrants to travel to North America and understanding more about how they moved around is vital to being able to tell their story."
Patrick Pester is the trending news writer at Live Science. His work has appeared on other science websites, such as BBC Science Focus and Scientific American. Patrick retrained as a journalist after spending his early career working in zoos and wildlife conservation. He was awarded the Master's Excellence Scholarship to study at Cardiff University where he completed a master's degree in international journalism. He also has a second master's degree in biodiversity, evolution and conservation in action from Middlesex University London. When he isn't writing news, Patrick investigates the sale of human remains.
Related:
The 1st Americans were not who we thought they were
What's the earliest evidence of humans in the Americas?
What were the largest predators in North America?
Did humans cross the Bering Strait after the land bridge disappeared?
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Yamnaya Culture
I. Origins of the Yamnaya
II. The Yamnaya Lifestyle
III. Spiritual Beliefs and Rituals of the Yamnaya
IV. Yamnaya Innovations
V. The Yamnaya Impact on Genetic Legacy
VI. Cultural Exchanges and Influences of the Yamnaya Culture
VII. The Decline and Legacy of the Yamnaya
Conclusion
The Yamnaya culture, also known as the Pit Grave culture or the Ochre Grave culture, emerged around 3300-2600 BCE in the Pontic-Caspian steppe. This culture is primarily known for its significant role in the spread of Indo-European languages across a vast area of Eurasia. The Yamnaya are crucial to understanding the migration patterns that shaped the genetic and cultural landscapes of ancient Europe and Asia.
Archaeological findings have been pivotal in uncovering the lifestyle and mobility of the Yamnaya people. Excavations of burial mounds reveal that they practiced kurgan burials, where leaders and prominent community members were interred in large, mound-covered graves. These graves often contained valuable items such as jewelry, weapons, and wagons, indicating a society with distinct social stratification and wealth distribution. The presence of wagons and horse remains in these graves also underscores the Yamnaya’s role in the early domestication and spread of the horse, which was crucial for their mobility.
Genetic studies have further illuminated the impact of the Yamnaya culture on the genetic makeup of modern Europeans. Genome-wide analysis indicates a massive migration from the steppes into Europe around 2500 BCE, coinciding with the timeline of the Yamnaya expansion. This migration led to significant genetic turnover in Neolithic European populations, introducing steppe ancestry as a major component in the genetic structure of modern Europeans.
Historical inferences, drawn from linguistic studies and comparative mythology, suggest that the Yamnaya might have been speakers of a Proto-Indo-European language, contributing to the dispersal of Indo-European languages through their migrations. This linguistic spread has profound implications for understanding the historical connections between different cultures and languages across Europe and parts of Asia. The synthesis of archaeological data, genetic research, and historical analysis provides a comprehensive picture of the Yamnaya culture. Their nomadic lifestyle, social structures, and movements across the Eurasian steppe have been central to studies on early human migrations, the spread of languages, and the genetic foundation of contemporary populations in Europe and beyond.
I. Origins of the Yamnaya
The Yamnaya culture originated in the Pontic-Caspian steppe, a vast region of grassland that stretches from the northern shores of the Black Sea as far east as the Caspian Sea. This area provided a fertile ground for the development of pastoralism, supported by extensive grasslands ideal for herding livestock, primarily cattle and sheep.
The predecessors of the Yamnaya include various Neolithic and Copper Age societies such as the Khvalynsk and Sredny Stog cultures. These groups laid the groundwork for what would become the Yamnaya culture through gradual developments in social organization and technology. By the late fourth millennium BCE, these changes culminated in the emergence of a more cohesive and expansive society identified as the Yamnaya.
Technological and societal advancements were crucial in shaping early Yamnaya society. They mastered the use of the wheel and domesticated horses, innovations that improved transportation and mobility. These technological advancements enabled the Yamnaya to manage larger herds of animals across wider territories, significantly enhancing their economic and social structures. Additionally, metallurgy, particularly the use of copper and later bronze, played a significant role in their society, providing tools and weapons that were superior to earlier stone versions.
Timeline of the Yamnaya Culture
3500 BCE: origins of Usatovo culture
3300 BCE: Emergence of the Yamnaya culture in the Pontic-Caspian steppe.
3300-3200 BCE: Establishment and expansion of the culture across the Pontic-Caspian steppe, marked by the construction of kurgans and the increasing use of domesticated horses.
3100-2900 BCE: Peak of Yamnaya influence, with extensive migrations across Europe and into Asia.
3100–2600 BCE: Yamnaya expansion into the Danube Valley
2900-2600 BCE: Gradual blending of the Yamnaya with local cultures, leading to the formation of new cultural groups like the Corded Ware and Afanasievo cultures.
2700 BCE: End of Trypillia culture
2600 BCE: The traditional end of the Yamnaya culture as it fully transitions into these successor cultures.
II. The Yamnaya Lifestyle
The Yamnaya lifestyle was predominantly semi-nomadic, characterized by seasonal movements that optimized access to grazing lands for their herds. This mobility was facilitated by their innovations in transport, notably the use of wagons and horseback riding, which allowed for the efficient movement of goods and people across the vast steppes. However, they also maintained more permanent seasonal camps, indicating a blend of nomadic and settled life. This adaptability was crucial for thriving in the diverse environments of the Pontic-Caspian steppe.
Subsistence strategies of the Yamnaya centered around pastoralism, with herding cattle, sheep, and goats being the primary economic activity. The domestication of the horse played a transformative role in Yamnaya life, not only for transportation and labor but also as a status symbol within the community. Horses facilitated wider territorial expansions and more effective management of large herds, thereby enhancing trade and communication networks across regions.
Social structure within the Yamnaya community was markedly hierarchical. Evidence from burial sites indicates a society with clear distinctions in social status, as seen in the wealth of grave goods and the size and location of burial mounds. Elite members of society were often buried with elaborate goods such as jewelry, weapons, and even vehicles, suggesting roles tied to both political power and warfare. Women’s graves also contained significant goods, indicating their possible roles in wealth and household management. The social fabric of the Yamnaya was tightly knit, with family and clan affiliations playing a critical role in the social and economic networks that supported their way of life.
III. Spiritual Beliefs and Rituals of the Yamnaya
The spiritual beliefs and rituals of the Yamnaya culture are vividly encapsulated in their funerary practices. Kurgans, or burial mounds, were a prominent feature of the Yamnaya landscape, serving both as tombs for the deceased and as enduring symbols of social status and community memory. These mounds varied in size, with larger ones likely signifying higher status individuals. The elaborate burials within these kurgans, often including valuable grave goods, wagons, and sometimes animal sacrifices, indicate a belief in an afterlife where such items were deemed necessary.
Religious beliefs of the Yamnaya people, while not fully understood, appear to have been deeply connected to nature and animal worship, as evidenced by the animal motifs found in their art and burial goods. Artifacts such as stone stelae, often carved with intricate designs and symbols, also suggest a culture with a rich symbolic expression, likely tied to religious or mythological beliefs. These stelae and other ceremonial objects might have served as territorial markers or memorials, playing roles in ritualistic practices and community gatherings.
Symbolism in Yamnaya culture frequently incorporated themes from their environment and daily life. Animal motifs, particularly those of horses and cattle, were common, underscoring the importance of these animals in Yamnaya subsistence and spirituality. Such motifs not only decorated artifacts but also reinforced the cultural and religious significance of animals, reflecting their integral role in the Yamnaya way of life. Additionally, the recurring use of circular patterns and solar symbols in their artifacts could signify a reverence for celestial bodies, which might have been central to their cosmology and ritual practices.
IV. Yamnaya Innovations
The Yamnaya culture demonstrated significant advancements in metallurgy, particularly in their use of copper. This early adoption of metal tools and weapons marked a substantial progression from the Stone Age technologies of their predecessors. Copper metallurgy in Yamnaya society not only enhanced their tool-making capabilities but also influenced their economic and social structures, as access to metal resources often led to increased trade and the accumulation of wealth. The implications of metallurgy were profound, enabling more efficient farming, herding, and craftsmanship, which in turn supported larger, more stable populations.
Wheel and wagon technology was another critical innovation of the Yamnaya culture. The development and utilization of wheeled vehicles are among the earliest known in human history, significantly predating their widespread use in other parts of Europe and Asia. These innovations facilitated the movement of goods and people across the vast expanses of the Eurasian steppes, bolstering trade networks that extended as far as the regions that are today Central Europe and the northern reaches of the Near East. Wagons not only enhanced trade but also played a crucial role in the nomadic aspects of Yamnaya life, allowing for the mobile management of large herds and the transport of portable dwellings.
In terms of warfare, the Yamnaya made several contributions that shaped the tactics and strategies of ancient combat. Their mastery of horseback riding is perhaps the most significant, as it introduced a new dynamic to warfare tactics. The mobility provided by horses gave the Yamnaya a tactical advantage, enabling fast strikes and quick retreats, which were difficult for more sedentary societies to counter. Additionally, their use of copper and later bronze weapons improved their combat effectiveness, giving them a superior edge in battles and skirmishes. This combination of mobility and metal weaponry allowed the Yamnaya to exert influence and control over a wide area, contributing to their expansion and the spread of their cultural and genetic legacy across Eurasia.
V. The Yamnaya Impact on Genetic Legacy
The Yamnaya migration left a profound genetic footprint across Europe and Asia, reshaping the genetic landscape of these regions significantly. Through large-scale migrations, often referred to as the Yamnaya horizon, this culture contributed to what geneticists call the "steppe ancestry" in modern European populations. Genetic studies using ancient DNA have revealed that the Yamnaya were a key source of this ancestry, which is particularly prominent in Northern and Central European populations today. This migration likely occurred in waves during the Early Bronze Age, around 2500 BCE, and its impacts are evident in the substantial genetic turnover observed in the archaeological record.
The role of Yamnaya genes in modern European populations is crucial in understanding the demographic and cultural transformations during this period. The spread of steppe ancestry is associated not only with genetic changes but also with the dissemination of new technologies, languages, and social structures across Europe. This ancestry is less prevalent in Southern European populations, suggesting a more complex pattern of interactions and migrations in these regions.
The extent of Yamnaya influence on modern Asian populations is also significant, particularly in Western and Central Asia, where genetic markers of steppe ancestry are evident. The Yamnaya impact extends into regions that are today part of Russia, Kazakhstan, and other parts of Central Asia, illustrating a broad eastward spread of their genetic legacy.
Debates and studies around the Yamnaya influence continue to evolve, with some researchers questioning the scale and uniformity of the Yamnaya migration. While the genetic evidence supports a significant movement of people from the steppes into Europe and Asia, the degree to which this influenced existing populations varies across different regions. Studies using ancient genomes are increasingly sophisticated, offering more nuanced insights into how these ancient migrations shaped the genetic and cultural landscapes of contemporary populations. These ongoing research efforts are crucial in piecing together the complex puzzle of our ancient past and the role of pivotal cultures like the Yamnaya in shaping human history.
VI. Cultural Exchanges and Influences of the Yamnaya Culture
The Yamnaya culture, with its wide-ranging mobility and strategic geographic positioning, engaged in various forms of interaction with neighboring cultures that encompassed trade, conflict, and assimilation. These interactions facilitated the exchange of goods such as metals, ceramics, and textiles, as well as technologies and cultural practices. Conflict was also a significant aspect of their relations with neighboring groups, as the Yamnaya's mobility and military capabilities often led them to expand territorially at the expense of other cultures. Assimilation occurred both as the Yamnaya absorbed elements of the cultures they encountered and as their own practices and traits spread among other groups.
One of the most profound influences of the Yamnaya culture is seen in the spread of the Indo-European languages. Linguistic evidence suggests that Proto-Indo-European, the ancestor of a vast family of languages spanning from India to Europe, was likely spoken by the Yamnaya. As they migrated across the Eurasian steppes, they brought their language with them, which evolved into the various branches of the Indo-European family, including Italic, Germanic, Slavic, Celtic, and Indo-Iranian languages, among others. This linguistic legacy is one of the clearest markers of Yamnaya influence on subsequent cultures.
The legacy of the Yamnaya is also evident in modern cultural practices and mythologies. Many of the mythological themes found in Indo-European traditions, such as the importance of horse gods and sky deities, can potentially be traced back to beliefs held by the Yamnaya and their descendants. Furthermore, practices such as horseback riding, which played a central role in Yamnaya life, became integral to many cultures across Europe and Asia, influencing everything from warfare to transport. Modern archaeological and genetic studies continue to uncover the depth of the Yamnaya's impact, revealing a culture that not only shaped the ancient world but also left a lasting imprint on the cultural and genetic makeup of modern populations.
VII. The Decline and Legacy of the Yamnaya
Several factors contributed to the decline of the Yamnaya culture around 2600 BCE. Environmental changes, such as shifts in climate and the resulting impacts on the steppe's ecosystem, likely played a role by challenging the pastoralist lifestyle that was central to Yamnaya subsistence and mobility. Overextension of territories and the logistical challenges of maintaining wide-reaching networks could also have contributed to their decline. Additionally, as the Yamnaya interacted with and sometimes assimilated into neighboring groups, the distinctiveness of their original culture may have diluted over time, blending into emerging new cultural formations.
The legacy of the Yamnaya culture continued through various successor cultures across Europe and Asia. The Corded Ware culture in Europe, for instance, shows clear continuities with Yamnaya burial practices and material culture, suggesting a significant Yamnaya influence. Similarly, in regions further east, such as the Altai Mountains and Mongolia, the Afanasievo culture demonstrates strong genetic and cultural ties to the Yamnaya. These successor cultures carried forward not only the genetic legacy of the Yamnaya but also their technological innovations, such as metallurgy and horseback riding, which remained central elements of these new societies.
Modern archaeological and scholarly interest in the Yamnaya remains high due to several factors. The Yamnaya's role in the diffusion of Indo-European languages is a primary area of interest, as it ties into broader questions about how languages spread and change over time and space. Genetic studies have revolutionized our understanding of ancient human migrations, with the Yamnaya often at the center of discussions about the peopling of Europe. Additionally, the sophistication of their burial practices provides insights into the social and political structures of early Bronze Age societies. Scholars are also intrigued by the way Yamnaya innovations, such as the use of the wheel and domestication of the horse, precipitated changes in societies far beyond the steppes. Thus, the study of the Yamnaya culture offers a window into the dynamic interactions that shaped the ancient world, making it a key focus of research in the fields of archaeology, genetics, and historical linguistics.
Conclusion
The enduring legacy of the Yamnaya culture is multifaceted, influencing modern populations in terms of genetics, languages, and cultural practices. The Yamnaya contributed significantly to the genetic makeup of contemporary European and some Asian populations, as evidenced by the widespread presence of steppe ancestry. Their migrations are also central to the dispersal of the Indo-European language family, which includes many of today’s dominant languages across Europe and parts of Asia. Moreover, the Yamnaya’s technological innovations, like horseback riding and the use of the wheel, have had lasting impacts on transportation and warfare strategies across multiple cultures.
Revisiting ancient cultures such as the Yamnaya enriches our understanding of human history and cultural development by illustrating how migrations and cultural exchanges have shaped societies. These studies highlight the complexity of human interactions and the ways in which cultural, technological, and genetic exchanges can drive significant changes over time. By examining the past, we gain insights into the processes of social evolution and the interconnectedness of human societies, offering perspectives that can help address contemporary questions about identity, heritage, and the forces shaping our world.
Last Updated: 11/29/2024
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Rare army general and chariot unearthed among China's Terracotta Warriors
Pandora Dewan, 12/19/24
Credit: Danny Lehman/Getty Images 請至原網頁觀看照片
Archaeologists studying China's famous "Terracotta Army" have uncovered what they believe to be a rare, life-size statue of a high-ranking military officer, local media report.
The highly adorned figure, discovered at the mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shi Huang in China's Shaanxi province, is only the 10th of its kind among the thousands of terracotta statues that have been unearthed at the site so far.
"These adornments on the high-ranking officers indicate how special they are," Xiuzhen Janice Li, an archaeologist at the University of Oxford and previously senior archeologist at the Emperor Qin Shihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum, told Live Science in an email. "The style and colour of the adornments featured the aesthetic taste and social status symbols [of the time.]"
The figure was discovered alongside the remains of two chariots, three clay horses and two additional figurines, offering fresh insights into the organizational structure of the ancient army.
"The arrangement of the high-ranking officers in the military formation reflected the military strategy, such as [the] commanding system in the Qin dynasty," Li said.
The Terracotta Army was discovered in 1974 during the construction of a well in northwestern China. The find gave rise to one of the greatest archaeological discoveries in modern times: an army of thousands of life-size clay figurines located across three pits, dating back to the third century B.C.
Fifty years after its discovery, archaeologists have unearthed roughly 2,000 terracotta warriors, although experts estimate there could be as many as 8,000 across the three sites, according to National Museums Liverpool in the U.K. The figures were buried with crossbows, spears and swords, and are thought to have been built to protect China's first emperor, Qin Shi Huang (who lived from 259 B.C. to 210 B.C.) in the afterlife.
The newfound figures were discovered in Pit Two, which is believed to contain the army's cavalry. However, Zhu Sihong, head of the excavation project, said that the officer is the first high-ranking individual to have been discovered at this site, the South China Morning Post reported.
Military officers are distinguished by their head pieces and colorful, intricately patterned armor, state broadcaster CCTV reported. Their hands are usually clasped in front of them and their shoulder pads and armor are embellished with ribbons.
While these findings offer new insights into the military structure of the ancient army, many questions still remain. "The major question is who is the top general to control the whole Terracotta Army?" Li said.
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