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古代文化/文明小檔案 – 開欄文
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瀏覽6,050 ｜回應38｜推薦2 |
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我最近讀到兩篇介紹文化/文明的報導。由於我在寫一篇討論建劬兄《走出歐洲中心主義的心路歷程 -- 命運共同體 VS 文明衝突論》的文章，順帶把它們轉登在此處做為參考資料。我不日會提出我對「文化」和「文明」淺見，在該文中將說明「文化/文明」一詞的用法。
過些時間，我會把關於中國考古工作的資訊整理一下，發表在此欄。
本文於 修改第 3 次
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5個流行的巨石陣何以被建造理論 – Jo Rowan
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請至原網頁觀看照片。
第四個理論顯然混淆了「建造的理由」和「建造後(衍生)的功能」；難道「邏輯學」不是考古學系的必修課程？還是羅文女士沒有修過「邏輯學」？
5 POPULAR THEORIES ABOUT WHY STONEHENGE WAS BUILT
Jo Rowan
Located in open grassland on the rolling hills of Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, is arguably the world's most famous prehistoric monument. Stonehenge is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is lauded as the most architecturally sophisticated prehistoric stone circle in the world.
Construction of Stonehenge began around 3000 BC during the Neolithic Period and continued well into the Bronze Age for over 1,500 years. The original monument was an early form of henge, which the British Museum describes as ‘a series of ceremonial monuments defined by ditches and banks of soil, usually circular or oval in shape, used to enclose a sacred space.’
By 2500 BC, the huge stone boulders had been brought to the site. The smaller bluestones were transported from west Wales on a remarkable journey spanning some 150 miles, whilst the larger sarsens came from the Marlborough Downs around 20 miles away.
The monumental task of transporting the stones, as well as raising them into place, has puzzled the minds of archaeologists and historians throughout history.
Over the years, several theories including some outlandish claims, have been put forward to explain who built Stonehenge and why? We take a look at five of them.
1. Solar calendar
The most widespread and popular theory about Stonehenge has been around since the 18th century. It suggests the monument is an ancient solar calendar that served as a physical representation of the year. It has been observed that the axis of the stones at the centre of Stonehenge marks the position of the rising sun on both the winter and summer solstice – the shortest and longest days of the year.
This would have enabled the ancient people to keep track of the changing seasons, vitally important for the local farming communities. It also provided people with an opportunity to gather together and celebrate the changes in the solar year.
2. Burial ground
During the early Bronze Age, burial mounds began to crop up around Stonehenge, reflecting the changing attitudes of people towards death and the afterlife. Burying people with sacred objects became the dominant way of expressing spiritual meaning across Britain and Europe.
Starting in 1900 BC and lasting for about 1,000 years, around 350 burial mounds were built at the Stonehenge site, suggesting the place took on ceremonial significance, acting like an ancient burial ground and temple to the dead.
3. A Druid temple
Around the 17th century, a theory connecting Stonehenge with the Druids arose. Given the awe-inspiring nature of Stonehenge, it's easy to see how the site could inspire religious spirituality and be used as a place of worship. Along with the well-established links between the ancient Celtic pagans and the changing of the seasons, it’s easy to also see the connection between Stonehenge and the Druids.
So was Stonehenge a Druid temple erected by the ancient Celtic pagans as a place of worship? The short answer is no. The construction of Stonehenge predates the Druids by some 2,400 years. What’s more, the ancient Druids, unlike their modern contemporaries, didn't worship the Sun or solstice since no records of such celebrations exist.
4. Place of healing
Skeletal analysis of bones unearthed at the Stonehenge site reveals many had marks of injury or illness. This gave rise to a theory, proposed by two leading British archaeologists, that the location was an important site for ancient healing. People came from far and wide to be healed by the magical powers of the giant stones.
Adding to this theory is evidence on the bluestones themselves, many of which display signs of having been chipped away at. Was this just ancient vandalism or deliberate acts by ancient people, hoping to take home a part of the magical healing stones to create some kind of healing talisman?
5. Aliens and wizards
Considering how impressive Stonehenge is, it’s easy to understand how previous generations have placed mythical explanations at the heart of the monument’s construction.
A popular theory during the Medieval Period had the mythical wizard Merlin at the centre of the creation of Stonehenge. The famous mage was a pivotal character in the legend of King Arthur and a theory arose around the 12th century linking Merlin to Stonehenge.
Using giants or just his own magic, Merlin supposedly moved the monument from Ireland and placed it at its current location on Salisbury Plain.
The spiritual successor to the Medieval wizard theory is surely the modern extra-terrestrial one. Gaining traction in the late 60s and into the 70s, the alien theory was founded on the principle that Stonehenge couldn’t possibly have been made by ancient people who possessed such primitive tools. Instead, it had to be the work of some advanced extra-terrestrial civilisation.
One clear theory as to why Stonehenge was built and by whom might never become clear, but what is evident is how the monument stood for different things over the generations, its meaning and purpose shifting and altering with those who inhabited its surroundings.
Facts about Stonehenge
* The Stonehenge bluestones weigh between two and five tonnes each, whilst the larger sarsens weigh around 25 tonnes. The largest sarsen, the Heel Stone, weighs a whopping 30 tonnes.
* Many theories have been proposed as to how the giant stones were raised. The most popular theory suggests they were moved into position using plant fibre ropes and a wooden A-frame. Another theory took inspiration from the Easter Island heads, claiming the Stonehenge slabs were rocked from side to side with levers. Small pieces of wood were then placed underneath the lifted side until the rock was nearly upright.
* The UNESCO World Heritage Site at Stonehenge is massive, covering some 6,500 acres. To put that into perspective, that’s 7.5 times as big as New York City’s Central Park.
* The tallest standing stone at Stonehenge is 8.71 metres tall, around 28 feet, with a portion of it buried underground.
本文於 修改第 2 次
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米勒特神話及其迷宮遺址 ---- Eyal Green
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Living Greek mythology: New discovery in Crete may be legendary Minotaur labyrinth
A 4,000-year-old circular structure resembling Minoan tomb architecture was unearthed near Kastelli, Crete, suggesting it could be the legendary labyrinth of King Minos.
EYAL GREEN, 06/22/24
While working on a new airport, a 4,000-year-old structure was discovered in Crete, and may have been the legendary labyrinth built for Minoan King Minos, LiveScience reported last week.
Atop a hill near the town of Kastelli - and approximately 51 kilometers southeast of Heraklion, Crete’s capital city – the ancient structure features a unique architectural design, commonly attributed to the Minoan civilization, and is believed to have been constructed around 2000-1700 B.C.
The structure, measuring 48 meters in diameter, features two main sections: a central circular building and an outer area formed by walls and created by a pattern similar to the spokes of a wheel. The building consists of eight stone rings intersected by small walls, creating a labyrinthine layout.
The recently discovered circular building near Kastelli, according to the Greek Culture Ministry’s statement, appears to have functioned as a site for community-wide ritual feasts rather than a residential complex. This theory was made when bones of numerous animals, among other artifacts, were found in the area, suggesting ceremonies involving food, wine, and various offerings.
Unlike the traditional square or rectangular layout of Minoan palaces like Knossos, the Kastelli structure's circular design aligns more closely with that of Minoan tombs, marking it as a unique architectural find. Its specific dimensions and exact height remain undetermined as archaeological investigations are still underway.
Ongoing research efforts, conducted in collaboration with the Greek Interior and the Hellenic Civil Aviation Authority, aim to further understand the building's purpose and ensure its preservation for future study. This collaborative work emphasizes the significance of the site in shedding light on ancient Minoan cultural practices and architectural diversity, according to LiveScience.
Who were the Minoans
A Bronze Age civilization, the Minoan people, once forgotten after the civilization’s collapse, was rediscovered by Sir Arthur Evans in his early 20th-century archaeological efforts. Evans coined the term "Minoan" after King Minos of mythology.
Archaeologists have dated the ancient culture to around 3000 and 1100 B.C. However, despite their complex culture and artifacts like pottery and frescoes, the Minoans' written language remains undeciphered.
Knossos, the most famous Minoan palace, represents their architecture: centered around a large open area with corridors leading to numerous smaller rooms. Despite being termed "palaces," these structures primarily served as administrative centers rather than royal residences.
The Minotaur and the Labyrinth
According to Britannica, in Greek mythology, when King Minos of Crete refused to sacrifice a majestic white bull with golden horns and hooves to Poseidon (who also gifted Minos the beast), the god punished King Minos by having his wife, Pasiphae, bear a half breed child from the same divine white bull. Poseidon's wrath caused Pasiphae to fall for the bull, and their offspring, the Minotaur, was confined within a labyrinthine structure crafted by Daedalus at King Minos’ request.
Later, when King Minos, sought vengeance for his son Androgeos' death in Athens, he demanded that seven youths and seven maidens be sent every nine years as tribute to the Minotaur. Theseus, the Athenian hero, volunteered to end this grim tradition. With the help of Ariadne, Minos' daughter, who fell in love with Theseus, he navigated the labyrinth using a thread provided by Ariadne and defeated the Minotaur.
Interestingly, a fragment of text from the poet Sappho showed that the story of Minos’ human tribute demands from the people of Athens already circulated at the start of the sixth century B.C., despite the Minotaur’s name never being mentioned. Moreover, while there was a focus on Theseus’ accomplishments, the Minotaur was mostly absent from his more popular stories, according to a report by National Geographic.
However, archeologists have not drawn parallels between the newly discovered structure and the home of the legendary Minoan Minotaur.
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軟實力展現之絲路探源 – 南華早報
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貴霜帝國是當時亞歐四大強國之一，與漢、羅馬、安息(古波斯)三個同一時期的帝國並列；為月氏(Yuezhi)族所建。並請至原網頁參看照片。
Chinese archaeological work in Uzbekistan helps 'fill a gap in the history' of ancient Silk Road empire
South China Morning Post, 06/22/24
Chinese and Uzbek archaeologists have completed the first phase of a joint project to excavate the remains of an ancient empire on the Silk Road.
The dig in Surxondaryo, a region in southern Uzbekistan, uncovered a "significant number" of artefacts and dozens of burials from the Kushan Empire, a vital hub on the Silk Road, according to China's state news agency Xinhua.
The archaeologists believe that the discoveries, which also include three houses, revealed that eastern Surxondaryo is "a crucial area for Kushan people distributions".
Little archaeological work has been done in that particular area and the team said the work helped fill out the historical record.
The Chinese team told Xinhua: "The presence of continuous traces of habitation on the eastern side of the Surxondaryo River region during the Kushan Empire ... fills in a gap in the history of this region during that period."
The Kushan Empire, which rose in the 1st century AD, covered most of modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan, as well as parts of India and Iran, becoming a crucial hub along the Silk Road.
The empire was also seen as playing a vital role in helping the spread of Buddhism, and some histories believe it was the route through which the religion first arrived in China during the Han dynasty.
The dig is one of a number of projects which China is using to boost cultural ties with Central Asian republics, with the Chinese Institute of Archaeology, the Shaanxi Provincial Research Institute of Archaeology and Northwestern University playing a leading role.
The first joint projects with Uzbekistan began in 2012, with Chinese state media at the time describing it as an effort "to study the civilisational processes of ancient cities and the cultural lineages and routes of the ancient Silk Road".
Chinese President Xi Jinping has repeatedly highlighted the importance of such initiatives, both during a visit to Uzbekistan in 2016 and last year, when he hosted the leaders of five countries at the first China-Central Asia summit.
He told the visitors it was important that we "carry forward our traditional friendship and promote people-to-people exchanges", promising to boost cultural tourism.
The term Silk Road was coined by the 19th century German geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen to describe the trade networks through which valuable commodities such as silk, porcelain, jade, gunpowder, livestock and fruit were traded in a vast network linking the main Eurasian empires.
At the heart of the route was Central Asia, a crossroads for merchants travelling between China, Persia, India and the Roman Empire.
Zhu Yongbiao, an international relations professor at Lanzhou University, said China wants to promote joint archaeological projects to strengthen cultural and human-to-human exchanges, which could then help promote the Belt and Road Initiative - a modern-day infrastructure project based on the old Silk Road.
"The promotion of belt and road construction requires people-to-people communication, and archaeological cooperation is one of the crucial fields," Zhu said.
Meanwhile, Uzbekistan and other Central Asian republics are rediscovering their national history after decades-long assimilation and suppression from the Russian-dominated Soviet Union.
He said independence has stimulated "a strong interest in their history and national origins", adding this is "a stage that all countries must go through after independence".
The South China Morning Post (SCMP), the most authoritative voice reporting on China and Asia for more than a century. For more SCMP stories, please explore the SCMP app or visit the SCMP's Facebook and Twitter pages. Copyright © 2024 South China Morning Post Publishers Ltd. All rights reserved.
Copyright (c) 2024. South China Morning Post Publishers Ltd. All rights reserved.
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馬雅文化之祭祀犧牲幼童 ---- Katie Hunt
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我們應該慶幸先秦文化沒有向活人祭祀的方向轉進。否則，如果我們老祖宗在四、五歲被嘎掉的話，…。從而，「慎終追遠」想想還真有點道理，不那麼「封建」了。
Who were the victims of Maya sacrifice? Ancient DNA reveals an unexpected finding
Katie Hunt, 06/13/24
The ancient Maya city of Chichén Itzá in Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula has long been associated with human sacrifice, with hundreds of bones unearthed from temples, a sacred sinkhole and other underground caverns.
A long-held misconception is that the victims were often young and female — an impression that has stuck in the contemporary imagination and become hard to dislodge even as more recent research has suggested that both men and women were among those sacrificed as well as children. A study published Wednesday in the journal Nature adds unexpected detail to that more complex picture.
The new analysis, based on ancient DNA from the remains of 64 people who archaeologists believe had been ritually sacrificed and then deposited in an underground chamber, found the victims were all young boys, many of whom were closely related.
“There were two big moments of surprise here,” said lead study author Rodrigo Barquera, a researcher in the department of archaeogenetics at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany.
“We were thinking, influenced by traditional archaeology that we would find, a non-sex-biased burial or mostly girls,” he said.
“And the second one (was) when we found out that some of them were related and there were two sets of twins.”
Analysis of skeletons can only reveal so much
The lurid notion that the Maya only sacrificed young women or girls is largely a myth that originated from early and romantic accounts of Chichén Itzá’s sacred sinkhole, or cenote, said Rubén Mendoza, an archaeologist and professor in the department of social sciences and global studies at California State University, Monterey Bay. He wasn’t involved in the study but is an editor of a new book on ritual sacrifice in Mesoamerica.
“This characterization of Maya sacrifice was catapulted to the forefront through media depictions of young maidens (aka virgins) being hurled to their deaths at the Sacred Well,” he said via email.
However, the mystery of exactly whom the Maya sacrificed has been hard to untangle because it’s impossible to identify the sex of a child’s skeleton by analyzing bones alone.
While the pelvis and a few other bones can reveal whether the skeleton was an adult male or female, the telltale differences only emerge during puberty and, even among adults, natural variation can make accurate identification difficult.
This difficulty makes genetic analysis particularly valuable, said study coauthor Christina Warinner, John L. Loeb Associate Professor of the Social Sciences and Anthropology at Harvard University and a group leader at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. But the impact of ancient DNA, which has revolutionized archaeology in Europe and higher latitudes, has been more limited in tropical areas because DNA degrades more easily in warm conditions. However, recent advances in ancient DNA technology are expanding its reach, she said.
“We’re getting better and better at retrieving even very small amounts of DNA. And suddenly, we now have the ability to do these large-scale genomic studies and apply ancient DNA as a tool to help us understand the past in Mesoamerica,” Warinner said. “I am so excited about that because this is an area of the world which has this incredibly rich history.”
Boys were younger than 6 when they were sacrificed
The team behind the new study was able to extract and sequence ancient DNA from 64 out of around 100 individuals, whose remains were found scattered in a water chultún — an underground storage chamber discovered in 1967 about 400 meters (437 yards) from the sacred sinkhole in Chichén Itzá.
With radiocarbon dating, the team found that the underground cavern was used for 500 years, although most of the children whose remains the team studied were interred there between AD 800 and 1,000 — during the height of Chichén Itzá’s political power in the region.
All the children were boys, who had been drawn from the local Maya population at that time, according to the DNA analysis, and at least a quarter of them were closely related to at least one other child in the chultún. The group also included two pairs of twins as well as siblings and cousins. Most of the boys were between 3 and 6 years old when they died.
Analysis of variants or isotopes of carbon and nitrogen in the bones also suggested that the related children had similar diets. Together, according to the authors, these findings suggested that related male children were likely selected in pairs for ritual sacrifices linked to the chultún.
“It is surprising to me to see family members, given the enormous time breadth of the deposit, which by radiocarbon dates is now confirmed to have been used over a time span of 500 years, during which these bodies slowly accumulated,” said Vera Tiesler, a bioarchaeologist and professor at the Autonomous University of Yucatán, in an email. She wasn’t involved in the research.
While the study authors believe this finding reveals the only known burial of sacrificed male children, Tiesler said that the ancient Maya ritual calendar was complex, likely with different “victim profiles” for different religious occasions throughout the year and time cycles.
How twins were identified
To avoid sampling the same child twice, the team used the same bone from each child — the petrous bone in the base of the skull.
“Since each child only has one of those, you can be sure that we didn’t double sample any individuals,” Warinner said. “And that’s actually what allowed us to identify identical twins.”
Twins hold a special place in the origin stories and spiritual life of the ancient Maya, Warinner added, particularly a story called the “Hero Twins” in which two brothers descend into the underworld to avenge their father’s death.
It’s not clear how or exactly why the children were sacrificed, but sacrificial methods in use at the time included decapitation and removal of the heart.
“I think we have to remember that death, and everything that these rituals imply, were completely different to us, because we have a very different view of the world than the one that they had,” Barquera said. “For them, it was not losing a child, not losing one of their kids, but an opportunity given by whatever forces to be part of this special burial.”
Connections to present-day community
Warinner said the study was the first time that genetic material recovered from ancient Maya remains was detailed enough to be sequenced, providing a richer picture of who the victims were and to whom they were — and are — related.
The team compared the ancient DNA with that of 68 residents of the present-day Maya community of Tixcacaltuyub. The researchers found the two shared a close genetic signature.
“They were super happy to learn that they were related to the people that once inhabited Chichén Itzá,” Barquera said.
The team also showed how the residents’ immune systems had been shaped by the biological consequences of diseases that European colonizers brought. The researchers found the local Indigenous population today has genetic variants that may have protected them against salmonella infection, thought to be the pathogen behind the devastating 1545 cocoliztli epidemic.
María Ermila Moo-Mezeta, a Mayan coauthor of the study and research professor at the Autonomous University of Yucatán, said the new analysis was significant for her, as a professor of Indigenous origin, to preserve the “historical memory of the Mayan people.”
It was fascinating to learn how past suffering had left a stamp on the immune system of present-day Maya communities, Tiesler added.
“This study is decisively new; a starting point for further, more specific inquiries about the convoluted trajectory of the Maya,” she said.
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金字塔工程的秘密-JULIETTE COLLEN
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埋藏在沙漠與農田下的遠古河道，可以說明建造金字塔巨大石塊的運輸方式。
Great Mystery of How Ancient Egyptians Built The Pyramids Finally Appears Solved
JULIETTE COLLEN, AFP, 05/17/24
(Anton Petrus/Getty Images；請至原網頁觀看照片)
Scientists have discovered a long-buried branch of the Nile river that once flowed alongside more than 30 pyramids in Egypt, potentially solving the mystery of how ancient Egyptians transported the massive stone blocks to build the famous monuments.
The 64-kilometre-long river branch, which ran by the iconic Giza pyramid complex among other wonders, was hidden under desert and farmland for millennia, according to a study revealing the find on Thursday.
The existence of the river would explain why the 31 pyramids were built in a chain along a now inhospitable desert strip in the Nile Valley between 4,700 and 3,700 years ago.
The strip near the ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis includes the Great Pyramid of Giza – the only surviving structure of the seven wonders of the ancient world – as well as the Khafre, Cheops and Mykerinos pyramids.
The water course of the ancient Ahramat Branch borders a large number of pyramids dating from the Old Kingdom to the Second Intermediate Period, spanning between the Third Dynasty and the Thirteenth Dynasty. (Eman Ghoneim；請至原網頁觀看地圖)
Archaeologists had long thought that ancient Egyptians must have used a nearby waterway to move the giant materials used to build the pyramids.
"But nobody was certain of the location, the shape, the size or proximity of this mega waterway to the actual pyramids site," lead study author Eman Ghoneim of the University of North Carolina Wilmington in the United States told AFP.
The international team of researchers used radar satellite imagery to map the river branch, which they called Ahramat – "pyramids" in Arabic.
Radar gave them the "unique ability to penetrate the sand surface and produce images of hidden features including buried rivers and ancient structures," Ghoneim said.
Surveys in the field and cores of sediment from the site confirmed the presence of the river, according to the study in the journal Communications Earth & Environment.
The once mighty river was increasingly covered in sand, potentially starting during a major drought around 4,200 years ago, the scientists suggested.
The great pyramid mystery
The Giza pyramids stood on a plateau roughly a kilometre from the banks of the river.
Many of the pyramids had a "ceremonial raised walkway" which ran alongside the river before ending at the Valley Temples which served as harbours, Ghoneim said.
This indicates that the river played "a key role in the transportation of the enormous building materials and workmen needed for the pyramid's construction," she added.
Exactly how ancient Egyptians managed to build such huge and long-standing structures has been one of history's great mysteries.
These heavy materials, most of which were from the south, "would have been much easier to float down the river" than transport over land, study co-author Suzanne Onstine of the University of Memphis in the US state of Tennessee told AFP.
The banks of the rivers could have been where the funeral entourages of pharaohs were received before their bodies were moved to their "final burial place within the pyramid," she suggested.
The river may also indicate why the pyramids were built in different spots.
"The water's course and its volume changed over time, so fourth dynasty kings had to make different choices than 12th dynasty kings," she said.
"The discovery reminded me about the intimate connection between geography, climate, environment and human behaviour."
©Agence France-Presse
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Li著《《遺跡裡的中國史》簡介》小評
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我認為，Li先生/女士的《《遺跡裡的中國史》簡介》中(本欄上一篇貼文)，就《道德經》兩個版本的討論有爭議(請見 'Tao Te Ching, the true and false' 一節)。該文對「道」的詮釋/英文翻譯有：”the ways to life“、“defines the universal law”、以及 ”the real law to life“ 等等，它們應該是該書作者曲先生的「解讀」，該文作者Li先生/女士的英文翻譯。
1) 在我看來，「道」應該詮釋為：「原則」或「宇宙法則」；相當於英文的 "principle" 或 "laws of the nature"。
2) 我不了解： ”the ways to life“ 和 ”the real law to life“ 兩個片語的 ”to life“ ，在中文裏是什麼意思。如果它相當於 ”of life“ ，或它們是Li先生/女士的「鍵誤」(也許他要表達的是： "to live“)；我想它們應該是一個錯誤的「解讀」，或「打字」/「翻譯」的錯誤。
3) 我相信：「常」和「恆」在這個脈絡可以視為「同義字」；或者，在西漢、三國、以及當下，兩者可以視為「同義」、「通用」、或(古時)抄刻時的「筆誤」。從而，這一句話在兩個版本中的差異，並不構成：「『常』道」和「『恆』道」在邏輯上或語意上有本質的不同；也就沒有：「邏輯上」何者更為「一致」或「相容」的問題；請見：Li先生/女士大作中引用曲先生所說： “more logically coherent” 這個評論。
我對《道德經》一書和它的馬王堆版本都沒有研究，上面的觀點根據我對《老子》內容的了解，以及我在語言學上的常識。
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《遺跡裡的中國史》簡介 -- Li Yuche
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請參看本欄上一篇xingfuyxh女士對本書的中文介紹。
Journalist-turned-researcher’s book unveils unknown stories about Chinese history
Unlocking imagination
Li Yuche, 04/09/24
Title：Chinese History in Relics
Author：Qu Changtao
Publisher：New World Press
Year of Publication：2024
(請至原網頁參看此書封面照片)
Although his first historical book Chinese History in Relics was just published in April 2024, writer Qu Changtao is no novice when it comes to ancient Chinese stories. With over 22 years of work experience as a newspaper journalist, Qu has been collecting historical and archaeological stories from all around the country.
Qu has been enchanted by Chinese histories that have simultaneously puzzled him. He told the Global Times that the more he delves into history, the more he realizes that it is still unfolding. Queries about the past motivated him to compile his recently published book, in which he has explored six of the most well-known Chinese archaeological ruins.
Qu Changtao Photo: Courtesy of Qu Changtao (請至原網頁參看作者照片)
'Tao Te Ching, the true and false'
Chinese History in Relics includes six chapters. In chronological order, they unpack the mysteries of the Yinxu Ruins, the Sanxingdui Ruins, the tomb of King Anxi of Wei, the Shuihudi site, the Mawangdui site, and the Haihunhou tomb in Nanchang.
These ruins are scattered across different Chinese provinces including Sichuan, Henan, Hubei, and Jiangxi. They represent differences between Chinese historical periods spanning from the Warring States Period (475 BC-221 BC) to the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 25).
Such sites were not chosen at random, but rather are interconnected through a timeline of 2,000 years of Chinese history. They showcase how the Chinese civilization evolved in certain periods when compared to its more than 5,000-year history.
"The Shang marks when the early civilization was forming gradually, and by examining the Qin and Han dynasties' sites, I found how historical legacies birthed the formation of the country's early cultural and social frameworks," Qu told the Global Times.
"I want readers to see how the Chinese civilization developed with diversities and continuity," the author emphasized.
Employing his journalistic storytelling skills, Qu's narration of history differentiates from the traditional chronological format as well as a stoic retelling of events. He packages his investigations as concise stories, giving them intriguing headlines such as "Tao Te Ching, the truth and the false."
He wrote about classic Chinese philosophical texts by referring to a silk Tao Te Ching manuscript that was discovered at the Han Dynasty Mawangdui site in 1973.
The Tao Te Ching was created by thinker Lao Tzu in the Spring and Autumn Period (770 BC-476 BC). The text has been interpreted numerous times, including by philosopher Wang Bi during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280). Wang's work is still the most popular Tao Te Ching interpretation to date, despite scholars debating its accuracy.
After interviewing experts and studying historical materials that he acquired from the local museum, Qu discovered, and was also convinced by a big distinction between the Han and Three Kingdoms period versions, with a more than 420-year gap.
In his book, he accounts for such distinctions, taking Tao Te Ching's first line "Dao Ke Dao, Fei Chang Dao" as an example, which is also present in Wang Bi's interpretation.
In a simple explanation, the opening line means that Dao (the ways to life) defines the universal law that cannot be explained explicitly with words, and conversely, any ways to life that can be explained explicitly are often not the most long-lasting or the real law to life.
The profound saying was documented differently on Han silk, where the line reads "Dao Ke Dao, Fei Heng Dao Ye."
The word "Heng," meaning "eternity" in Chinese, was presented to change the whole idea into describing that any way to life has its law, and there is no single eternal law that can guide one through his or her life until one learns to cope with the changing universe and society.
"I find the Han Dynasty one was more logically coherent and I'm convinced by it," Qu told the Global Times. He also added that stories like those in his books aim to open up readers' imaginations about the profound Chinese literary and philosophical legacies.
An oracle bone at the Yinxu Ruins Photo: VCG (請至原網頁參看龜甲骨照片)
Project continues
Such stories make Qu's book an interesting historical compilation that challenges readers' existing understanding of the sophistication of Chinese history.
In another story, he notes how the Qin people valued agriculture and invented an early ecological protection system by enacting laws such as prohibiting deforestation in spring - unless one has coffin-making requirements - as well as inventing strict criteria to assess agricultural officials.
A well-performing official in charge of stock farming who passed all four annual tests would receive a bottle of fine wine, 10 strips of dried pork, and also received an enviable 30 days of holiday.
Qu's depicted stories are seen as reflections of not only the history of dynasties, but also the history of how ancient humanity grew in China along with the changing times.
"I want readers to experience the vividness of Chinese culture through my writing," Qu said.
Published by New World Press, the book has received positive reviews from readers. "I wonder whether or not the book is this good," the author rather modestly questioned
He told the Global Times that his journey into Chinese history will not end in Chinese History in Relics since he is aiming to investigate around "10 to 20" historical sites and publish his findings in the future.
A bronze standing figure at the Sanxingdui Ruins Photo: VCG (請至原網頁參看三星堆青銅人像照片)
本文於 修改第 1 次
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《遺跡裡的中國史》簡介 ----- xingfuyxh
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感謝作者 xingfuyxh女士。
《遺跡裡的中國史》：帶你走進中國六大遺跡，走進悠久歷史
xingfuyxh 評論 遺跡裡的中國史
xingfuyxh，2024-02-28，已編輯，江蘇
《遺跡裡的中國史》翻開第一頁就有一點驚喜，一頁一頁翻完，就一個感覺，這本書是一個寶藏啊！內容非常豐富，關於歷史的討論非常深入，書中的每一幅圖也都是精心繪製，看完一遍還想再看第二遍。
這本《遺跡裡的中國史》，作者曲長濤，史地學者，作家，前《讀者新報》發現專刊記者，《都市資訊報》文史專欄記者，喜馬拉雅暢銷書獨家簽約主播……頭銜很多。這本書中詳細介紹了中國的六處大型遺跡且通過近三百張照片，生動地呈現了這些遺跡的歷史和現狀。在閱讀這本書的過程中，我深深地被作者對歷史和對遺跡的熱愛所打動，同時也為書中詳實的資料和精美的圖片所吸引。
曲長濤在書中選取的六處大型遺跡，都是中國歷史上具有重要意義的地點，包括殷墟遺址、三星堆遺址、魏安釐王墓、睡虎地秦墓、馬王堆漢墓、海昏侯墓。這些遺跡不僅是中華文明的見證，更是中華兒女內心深處的精神寄託。作者通過細緻的考察和深入的研究，將這些遺跡的歷史背景、文化內涵和藝術價值一一呈現出來，讓讀者在欣賞美景的同時，也能領略到歷史的厚重。
這本書中使用了近三百張照片，這些照片不僅展示了遺跡的美麗和神秘，更通過細膩的光影變化和角度選取，讓讀者感受到了遺跡的歷史氣息和人文精神。這些照片不僅僅是簡單的記錄，更是對遺跡的敬仰和尊重，圖文並茂，也讓讀者對遺跡的認識更加深刻。
此外，曲長濤在書中還融入了自己對歷史的思考和對遺跡的情感。他不僅在書中介紹了遺跡的歷史和文化背景，引用大量的古文來說明這些遺跡，同時將這些遺跡與現實生活聯繫起來，讓讀者更加深入地理解遺跡的歷史意義和現實價值。
總的來說，《遺跡裡的中國史》是一部值得一讀再讀的書籍。如果你對中國歷史和文化感興趣，那麼這本書一定要讀一讀。
本文版權歸作者 xingfuyxh 所有，任何形式轉載請聯繫作者。
本文於 修改第 3 次
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中國考古界2023年六大成果 -- 藍孝威
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「田野考古」一詞應稱為或譯為「現場考古」或「實地考古」。由於城市化的過程，過去很可能只存在於「田野」的遺址，也會在「都市」中發現了。何況，西安、洛陽、北京、南京等地遺址的開挖，可以稱之為「田野考古」嗎？
「田野考古」這個儒林笑話，從學者不認識英文字field，以及不懂得中文「田野」一詞的「用法」，這兩者衍生而來。
2023年中國考古新發現：濛溪河遺址或將改寫歷史
藍孝威，01/31/24
據大陸央視新聞報導，1月30日，中國社會科學院考古研究所發佈2023年田野考古新發現，來自四川、福建、湖北、陝西、新疆、內蒙古的6個考古項目成功入選。這6個項目為何能入選？它們為揭秘不同時期的歷史帶來了哪些實證？2023年田野考古新發現，時間跨度大、地域範圍廣，卻有一個共通之處，到底是什麼？
濛溪河遺址的新發現或將改寫歷史
6個考古項目分別位於四川、福建、湖北、陝西、新疆、內蒙古，而這其中最受關注的應該是四川資陽的濛溪河舊石器時代遺址。「我們是誰、我們從哪裡來」，這個關於早期現代人起源和擴散的問題一直備受關注。而濛溪河遺址是現代人在起源擴散階段，全球唯一發現的有豐富植物遺存的綜合性遺址，全面立體反映5萬至7萬年前人類社會的發展圖景。專家表示，這裡面的發現或將改寫一段歷史。
濛溪河遺址位於四川省資陽市樂至縣，地處沱江支流濛溪河中上游，發現於2021年9月。經光釋光初步系統測年，濛溪河遺址年代距今約5萬至7萬年，在人類起源發展史上，處在現代人起源擴散關鍵階段。考古發掘顯示，遺址最下部約1.7米厚的紅褐色黏土質粉砂層，正是遺址的主要文化層，遺物分布最為豐富。
中國科學院古脊椎動物與古人類研究所研究員高星表示，這處遺址因為是飽水的環境，人類生產生活栩栩如生的一些畫面被保留下來，從石器、動物化石、植物的遺存都有。這些對研究當時氣候環境、人類的行為能力都提供了非常重要的信息。
截至目前，濛溪河遺址已發現石器、木器、骨器、動物化石、植物遺存等超過10萬件。尤其是發現橡子、核桃、葡萄等堅果、水果類食物。專家表示，這一發現或將改寫史前人類的植物利用歷史。
中國社會科學院考古研究所研究員趙志軍表示，最重要的發現就是這批植物遺存。農業社會是從採集狩獵發展而來的，但是以往我們都是討論的狩獵，因為我們沒有植物遺存，我們獲得的只是動物的遺存。濛溪河遺址使得我們終於有能力、有可能去探討採集的行為模式。
此外，濛溪河遺址還集中發現了遠古先民的加工工具，以及生火、切割、刻畫等一系列複雜行為痕跡，全面立體地反映了5萬至7萬年前早期人類社會圖景，為研究人類起源演化等重大學術課題，提供了實物資料。
上海大學文化遺產與信息管理學院講師黃超表示，像有一件骨錐，它上面就是有一系列的連續的5個比較明顯的疤痕，另外還有那件約3毫米的帶有11道幾乎平行的刻畫痕的骨骼碎片，它是怎麼樣形成的？古人類為什麼要這樣去刻畫它？是留待考古學家去解釋去調查的一個謎團。
據瞭解，接下來，考古團隊將在濛溪河遺址開展年代學、環境考古、動物考古、植物考古等多學科研究與文物保護工作。
屈家嶺遺址：規模驚人的「水利社會」
5000年前的中國早期文明遺跡，知名度最高的無疑是長江下游的良渚。但是，考古學家會告訴你，大體同時，在長江中游，有一處文明遺址同樣值得注意，這就是屈家嶺。在屈家嶺遺址，新發現了規模龐大的史前水利系統。專家表示，水壩的發現非常重要，因為這是文明不斷向高級層次發展的關鍵證據。
最新考古發現，屈家嶺遺址存在熊家嶺、鄭畈等多組大型史前水利系統。其中，熊家嶺水利系統位於遺址東北部，由水壩、蓄水區、灌溉區和溢洪道等構成，水壩坐落於一處河道上，土築而成，現存壩體高約2米、寬約13米，南北長約180米。蓄水區面積約19萬平方米，灌溉區面積約8.5萬平方米，並發現史前稻田遺存。測年數據表明，早期壩的年代為距今約5100年，為中國迄今考古發現最早的水利設施之一。
中國社會科學院考古研究所研究員劉建國表示，目前來看，它第一個是年代很早，第二它體量很大，體量很大就表明它能夠儲藏很多的水。這些水在旱季特別是應付那種比較乾旱年份的時候，它可以有力保障灌區的農田裡邊水稻能夠正常成長，能夠獲得豐收，水稻豐收對史前人類、對他們的聚落來講是非常重要的。農業豐收了，可能有些人就不需要都來種水稻，那就有些人自然地他就可能專門去制陶器，或者是做玉器，這樣社會就分工，另外階層也會出現，人類文明就是在這樣的情況下不斷往前發展、往前推進。所以水壩的發現非常重要，是文明不斷向高級層次發展很關鍵的證據。
發掘顯示，熊家嶺水壩可分為早晚兩期，沿用年代較長，壩體硬度和密度較高，存在明顯的拍打夯實等人工堆築痕跡。壩體中還發現原始的「夾筋工藝」，即在土體中摻雜植物根莖，以增強壩體強度和穩定性，同時還發現了草裹泥的建造工藝。
中國社會科學院考古研究所研究員劉建國表示，熊家嶺壩體不全是草裹泥，有的地方不一樣，古人有可能是根據他們的經驗，選擇不同的方式加以堆築牆體，而且牆體在發掘的時候非常堅硬。
專家表示，這些水利系統具備防洪抗旱、生活用水、農業灌溉等功能，標誌著史前先民實現了從適應自然到改造自然的跨越，從被動地防禦水旱災害轉變為主動地控水用水，為探索長江中游史前治水方式和聚落變遷等提供了細節支撐。
近年考古工作還揭示，屈家嶺遺址先後歷經油子嶺文化、屈家嶺文化和石家河文化三個史前文化階段，主體年代為距今5900年至4200年，存續近2000年之久。油子嶺文化中晚期，發展形成範圍約105萬平方米的大型遺址，為長江中游地區同時期面積最大的聚落，並確認水利系統、墓葬區、居住區和陶器生產區等。相關發現為研究長江中游文明進程、探討中華文明起源提供了關鍵樣本。
屈家嶺遺址：「磉墩」遺存填補建築史空白
在屈家嶺遺址，考古人員還新發現了高等級建築基址，並首次發現早期的「磉墩」遺存，為瞭解史前建築技術提供了全新的考古材料。
新發現的史前大型建築基址F38面積約510平方米。平面呈東北至西南向「曲尺」狀，自北向南分為四間，南端向西折出一間。基址範圍內，發現有黃土台基和數量眾多、規模龐大、建造工藝考究的「磉墩」，磉墩是古建築的基礎部分，起承載柱子、柱礎以及牆體的作用。F38的「磉墩」排列有序、數量眾多，刷新了史前建築技術的認識。
屈家嶺遺址考古項目負責人陶洋表示，現存磉墩總計有70餘個，大小不等，位於建築中部兩分間拐角處的磉墩體量巨大，最大的長約3.3米，寬約1.7米，深約1.5米。整個磉墩的營建流程是首先會挖走預設磉墩區域的原有軟基層，然後會在高低不平的起建面上堆築純淨的黃土台基，錨定磉墩布設點位之後，會在台基上挖深坑，再燒烤坑壁形成硬結面，後用紅燒土混合黏土及少量焚燒過的豬骨填滿深坑形成磉墩，是迄今發現磉墩的最早形態，為中國古代木構建築技術奠定了史前基礎，填補了中國建築史的空白。
專家表示，築造這些磉墩，是屈家嶺先民為適應複雜地形、營造大體量建築而進行的創新。依據建築形制及特徵，專家判斷，該區域為「屈家嶺文化」時期的高等級建築區。這一時期，遺址聚落規模擴展至284萬平方米。環壕圍合面積（含環壕）約90萬平方米。屈家嶺遺址為典型的「壕堰式」聚落，是長江中游地區史前中心聚落形態的代表。
中國社會科學院考古研究所研究員劉建國表示，在5000年前，在江漢平原，這些史前先民智慧應該是達到一個非常高的程度了，他們能夠很好地去認識瞭解所處的自然環境，然後選擇適合他們生存的居住地和種植區域，再加以改造，這樣他們才能夠在這地方定居下來，旱澇保收，文明不斷發展。
除了高等級建築區，屈家嶺時期，遺址也發現大型水利系統、墓葬和銅礦石等遺存，探索到史前稻田的分布範圍，出土已知最早的高溫黑釉陶等。專家表示，大型中心聚落、高等級建築和水利工程設施的集中出現，年代明確、結構清晰、工藝高超，充分揭示了長江中游地區史前文明發展的高度。
草原第一都 -- 遼上京遺址
位於內蒙古赤峰市巴林左旗的遼上京遺址，也入圍了這次考古新發現。都城，在人類文明發展進程中具有十分重要的作用。公元918年，耶律阿保機建立了中國遊牧民族在北方草原地區建立的第一座都城——遼上京城，拉開了歷時200餘年的遼代歷史大幕。
遼上京遺址位於內蒙古赤峰市巴林左旗林東城區南郊。城址平面略呈「日」字形，由北部的皇城和位於南部的漢城兩部分組成，總面積約5平方公里。北部皇城內建有宮城，形成「回」字形。從2011年起通過考古調查、鑽探和發掘，首次確認了遼上京宮城的位置和規模。宮城位於皇城中部偏東，平面呈近方形，東、南、西各辟有一門。通過對宮城四面牆體的局部試掘和解剖，初步掌握了宮城城牆的營建做法、形制結構及其年代。
中國社會科學院考古研究所漢唐考古研究室主任研究員董新林表示，我們有很多重要的收穫。第一點就體現在我們對遼上京皇城的整體佈局有了一個比較大的推進；第二點，通過這兩年考古工作的發現，我們再一次印證了遼代建築和手工業高水平的程度。
遼上京的城市規劃主體承繼了中原的「擇中而立」、皇城宮城環套、明確中軸線的規劃思想，顯然是承繼了漢唐文化的傳統。自公元918年開始營建，在長達200多年時間裡，遼上京是北方草原上的政治、經濟、文化中心。
中國社會科學院考古研究所漢唐考古研究室主任研究員董新林表示，通過這個考古發現的實例，印證了遼朝在統一多民族國家形成過程中所作出的重要貢獻。
在過去的一千多年，遼上京被淹沒在歷史的長河之中。隨著考古發掘工作的推進，深埋塵土中的文物如今正一點點地被剝去神秘面紗，讓世人看到它的真容。截至目前，遼上京遺址共出土泥塑佛教造像、契丹文碑片等珍貴文物兩萬餘件。
內蒙古巴林左旗文化旅遊體育局副局長遲秀國表示，這六尊泥塑像是在遼上京西山坡佛寺遺址出土的，面部表情栩栩如生，身上塗有彩繪，出土時大部分都是殘片，在實驗室經過兩年多才修復，是目前所知全國唯一的一批考古發掘出土的遼金時期泥塑像，這對於整個的佛教考古研究具有很重要的學術意義。
6個項目何以入選2023年田野考古新發現？
此外，入選2023年田野考古新發現的，還有福建平潭縣殼丘頭新石器時代遺址群，全面揭露了中國東南沿海地區7000年以來的史前聚落形態及其變化發展規律，讓南島語族早期人群的特徵逐漸清晰；陝西清澗縣寨溝商代遺址，揭示出商代晚期陝北地區高度發達的青銅文明；新疆吐魯番市西旁唐宋時期景教寺院遺址，為研究絲綢之路與中外文化交流等等提供了豐富資料。2023年的重要考古發現非常多，這6個項目為何能在上千個考古項目中脫穎而出？
中國考古學會理事長、中國社會科學院考古研究所所長陳星燦表示，2023年重要的考古發現非常多，2023年國家文物局頒發的主動性考古項目有256項，配合基本建設的考古項目大概是1367項，兩個加起來超過了1600項。其實是非常難選的。我們只有一個目標就是學術，它的學術的重要意義，所以我們是根據它的重要性來判斷的。比如濛溪河的遺址，為啥說它是具有世界意義的重要發現？我們過去發現舊石器，大概只有兩種東西可以留下來，一種是石器，一種是已經變成化石的這樣一些骨骼的遺存，也都是非常破碎。這一次第一次這麼完整地發現這麼大量的保存完好的動物遺存，保存完好的植物遺存，舊石器時代考古到現在一二百年，在中國也有100多年的歷史了，那麼其實像這樣的發現也可以說絕無僅有，只此一例，在中國、在世界上也非常罕見，比如說南島語族，這個也是一個起源地，而它的意義也絕非僅僅限於地區，它是有世界意義的。比如說商代的陝西清澗寨溝遺址，寨溝遺址的發現也非常非常重要，它讓我們認識到商代晚期的時候，黃河兩岸的這些方國它們的存在，它們和中原王朝的關係，甚至也包括和北方草原地區的關係，比如說新疆的吐魯番的景教寺院遺址，也就從多元多民族國家的形成、從東西文化的交流等等方面都具有非常重要的意義。
時空跨度大 6項新發現有何共通之處？
2023年田野考古新發現的6個入選項目，時間跨度大、地域範圍廣，看似關聯不大，但專家表示，這些新發現對中華文明的起源與發展、統一多民族國家的形成，提供了重要的材料佐證。
中國考古學會理事長、中國社會科學院考古研究所所長陳星燦表示，我們選出了6項的入選項目，年代涵蓋了從舊石器時代晚期，5萬到7萬年，一直到明清時期，涵蓋的面非常廣，那麼地域也是這樣，從東南沿海福建，一直到西北地區的喀什、新疆的吐魯番地區，年代和空間都是很大的一個範圍，對我們認識人類的起源與擴散，尤其是現代人的起源和擴散，農業的起源和發展，文明的起源與發展，統一多民族國家的形成，都會有非常重要的價值，提供了非常重要的材料，在這方面都有非常重要的進展。
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世外桃源之古印度文明 -- Neel Burton
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索引：
egalitarian society：平等社會
Harappa：哈拉帕，位於巴基斯坦彭加卜省的拉維河流域，屬於印度河流域文明的一座防禦性城市遺址
Minoan Linear A：米羅線形文字 A體，至今未被破解
Mohenjo-daro：死亡之丘，地名
necropolis：大型，精緻的墳場
Punjab：彭加卜區
Schliemann：業餘考古學家
Stein：考古學家
terracotta：赤陶土，赤褐色、土紅色，赤褐色的，土紅色的粗陶、陶瓦、以粘土為原料的陶器
tributary：支流
The Indus Valley Civilization: An Ancient Utopia?
In the Bronze Age, Harappans had nothing to kill or die for and no religion.
Neel Burton, Reviewed by Tyler Woods, 03/16/24
KEY POINTS
* India’s first civilization was astonishingly advanced.
* But more interesting is what they did not have: no king, army, or religion.
* The Indus Valley Civilization undermines the Enlightenment idea of historical progress as global and linear.
In the mid-1850s, a few years after the British annexation of the Punjab, some railway builders stumbled upon an ancient mound of terracotta bricks at Harappa in the valley of the Ravi. Despite reports of their antiquity, they carted off the bricks for track ballast to support nearly 100 miles of railway between Multan and Lahore.
In 1920, John Marshall, the director of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), ordered a full excavation of the site. Around that time, he heard of another site some 400 miles to the south, which locals called Mohenjo-daro ("The Mound of the Dead") after the human and animal bones that lay strewn among the artifacts. Initial digs at Mohenjo-daro uncovered striking similarities between the two sites, and it became apparent that they belonged to an ancient civilization that pushed back the history of India by several thousand years.
In an article for the 24 September 1924 issue of the Illustrated London News, Marshall wrote:
Not often has it been given to archaeologists, as it was given to Schliemann at Tiryns and Mycenæ, or to Stein in the deserts of Turkestan, to light upon the remains of a long forgotten civilisation. It looks, however, at this moment, as if we were on the threshold of such a discovery in the plains of the Indus.
Around 1,000 sites have since been reported, including five major urban centres (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and three more). The territory, which straddled the modern India-Pakistan border, stretched some 900 miles along the banks of the Indus and its tributaries, covering an area larger than that of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia combined. The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), or Harappan Civilization, as it came to be called, also had extensive terrestrial and maritime trade connections with, among others, Central Asia, Mesopotamia, and the Arabian Peninsula.
An advanced early civilization
Indus Valley Civilization, major sites. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Public domain (請至原網頁查看地圖)
Early centers were populated from Neolithic settlements such as Mehrgahr in Balochistan. Like the valley of the Nile and the basin of the Tigris-Euphrates, the Indus Valley is a semi-arid floodplain with fertile, irrigated land that did not need much clearing. The advent of settled agriculture in such a place led to a food surplus that supported population growth and urban development.
At their height, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro may each have had 30,000 to 60,000 inhabitants. Although these cities are some 400 miles apart, their construction is remarkably uniform and stable, changing little over the course of a thousand years. The IVC peaked from around 2700 BCE to 1700 BCE and represents the flowering of the Indian Bronze Age.
For context: in Egypt, the first pyramid, the Step Pyramid of Djoser in the Saqqara necropolis, dates from c. 2650 BCE; in Europe, the first Cretan palaces, at Knossos, Mallia, and Phaestos, date from a little after c. 2000 BCE.
Rather than growing organically, Harappan settlements were laid on a similar grid pattern, with large communal buildings and the world’s earliest sanitation system—a degree of urban planning not to be seen again in the subcontinent until the 18th century, when Sawai Raja Jai Singh laid out plans for the "pink city" of Jaipur. Brick houses, some multi-storey, opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. Each house had access to covered drains along the main roads, suggesting a fairly egalitarian society. The Harappans also had granaries, dockyards, reservoirs, irrigation canals, and public baths.
With a few things missing
The Dancing Girl. Mohenjo-daro, c. 2000 BCE. Source: Joe Ravi/ Wikicommons/ public domain (請至原網頁查看人像)
But what is more interesting is what they did not have.
First, they did not have palaces or monuments to monarchs. Indeed, this is one reason we know relatively little about the IVC: unlike in Egypt, there are no rich burials like Tutankhamun. The other reason is that the Indus script, like Minoan Linear A, remains undeciphered. After the demise of the IVC, writing would not reappear on the Indian subcontinent for another thousand years.
The Harappans did have citadels but no standing army. The primary purpose of the citadels was to divert or withstand flood waters. Although the standardization of bricks, road widths, and weights and measures over such an extensive area speaks of a strong central government and efficient bureaucracy, the lack of a monarch and standing army argues against the idea of a conquering empire.
Finally, they did not have temples, and so, it is inferred, no organized religion.
Could this utopia have been the first secular, egalitarian state or confederation?
Perhaps the most iconic Harappan artifact is a four-inch bronze statuette, Dancing Girl, depicting a confident teenager caught in a moment with her right hand on her hip and her left hand on the knee. With her chin raised and wearing nothing but bangles and a necklace, she looks much more like a Henri Matisse than anything prehistoric—if only better.
Neel Burton is author of Indian Mythology and Philosophy.
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