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古代文化/文明小檔案 – 開欄文
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瀏覽4,908 ｜回應33｜推薦2 |
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我最近讀到兩篇介紹文化/文明的報導。由於我在寫一篇討論建劬兄《走出歐洲中心主義的心路歷程 -- 命運共同體 VS 文明衝突論》的文章，順帶把它們轉登在此處做為參考資料。我不日會提出我對「文化」和「文明」淺見，在該文中將說明「文化/文明」一詞的用法。
過些時間，我會把關於中國考古工作的資訊整理一下，發表在此欄。
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印尼金字塔可能改寫人類歷史 - Jordan Pearson
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位於印尼Gunung Padang 的金字塔號稱有 27,000 to 16,000年之久。如果測試結果得到證實，它相當於考古學諾貝爾獎的發現猶其余事；改寫人類歷史的震撼至少比美哥白尼式劃時代性發現。
A Prehistoric Pyramid May Have Just Rewritten Human History, Scientists Claim
The pyramid of Gunung Padang in Indonesia began construction in the deep past, a new study claims, and was built by an unknown ancient people.
Jordan Pearson, 11/07/23
The pyramids of Egypt are staggeringly ancient. By the time of Cleopatra, they were already thousands of years old. But new research claims that another pyramid might have them all beat, potentially rewriting the history of human civilization.
A team of researchers say in a new study that Gunung Padang, a pyramid in Indonesia, is at least 16,000 years old, roughly 10,000 years older than the pyramid of Djoser in Egypt, long thought to be the world’s oldest.
The researchers, who hail from a collection of universities and institutions in Indonesia, say this makes Gunung Padang “potentially…the oldest pyramid in the world.” In contrast, ancient Egyptians are believed to have begun construction on the Djoser pyramid roughly 5,000 years ago. The new research indicates that Gunung Padang is a highly complex, prehistoric pyramid that sheds “light on the engineering capabilities of ancient civilizations during the Palaeolithic era,” also known as the Stone Age.
Gunung Padang is a pyramid-shaped mound of terraced earth adorned with ancient stone built on top of an extinct volcano. It has long been acknowledged as an ancient site, but just how old has been a matter of some debate. Most estimates have placed it under 2,000 years old, but Indonesian geologist Danny Hilman Natawidjaja—one of the study's co-authors—has long claimed that the site is much older. A decade ago, Natawidjaja’s claims caught the attention of then-President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, who set up a task force to study the pyramid, which included Natawidjaja.
Natawidjaja’s claims are controversial because they suggest an unknown Stone Age civilization created a monumental pyramid. ''People think the prehistoric age was primitive, but this monument proves that wrong,” he said in 2013. Since then, the team’s work has been revealed in piecemeal. Last month, they published a study in the peer-reviewed journal Archaeological Prospection that concludes the oldest parts of Gunung Padang are 27,000 to 16,000 years old, based on a range of tests including electrical resistivity tomography, ground-penetrating radar, seismic tomography, and core sampling among other methods.
Using these techniques and aided by a landslide on one side of the structure that researchers say revealed a new and much earlier layer of the pyramid’s construction, the paper’s authors conclude that Gunung Padang was built in stages over millennia. The authors explain:
“According to the analysis, Unit 3 [the oldest layer] is estimated to have been constructed during the remarkable timeframe of 25,000 to 14,000 BCE. Following this period, there was a hiatus spanning from 14,000 to 7,900 BCE before Unit 3 was ultimately buried between 7,900 and 6,100 BCE. Remarkably, approximately two millennia later, the construction of Unit 2 took place between 6,000 and 5,500 BCE. Another significant hiatus occurred from 5,500 to 2,100 BCE, followed by the construction of Unit 1 between 2,000 and 1,100 BCE. Lastly, an intriguing excavation of Unit 2 and subsequent soil fills transpired between 1,393 and 1,499 CE.”
The researchers write that “this study sheds light on advanced masonry skills dating back to the last glacial period,” and “challenges the conventional belief that human civilization and the development of advanced construction techniques emerged only during the warm period of the early Holocene or the beginning of the Neolithic, with the advent of agriculture approximately 11, 000 years ago.” Rather, they say that the evidence from Gunung Padang indicates that advanced construction techniques existed before agriculture was adopted.
Natawidjaja and his co-authors write that more research is needed to uncover more information about Gunung Padang, and researchers from around the world will surely be eager to independently assess the claims included in the paper. Regardless, it’s a fascinating proposal about what human existence was really like in the time before recorded history.
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簡介15個非洲的古代文化/文明 -- Deb Lotti
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15 ancient African civilizations you should know about
Deb Lotti, 10/25/23
Africa is the world’s second-largest continent and home to a multitude of peoples. It has also been the birthplace of some of history’s most interesting civilizations. Here are a few examples.
Ancient Egypt
The ancient Egyptian civilization evolved over three millennia until its absorption into the Roman Empire in 30 BCE. Their mastery of a hieroglyphic writing system has provided us with exceptional documentation of their history. Many of their monuments have also survived, including pyramids and temples covered in bas-relief sculptures (photo) depicting political events as well as scenes from everyday life.
Kingdom of Kush
This kingdom arose around 2,000 BCE and enjoyed centuries of prosperity in the region now known as Nubia. Its long history is marked by both trade relations and military conflict with its northern neighbor, Egypt. Surviving monuments show an assimilation of Egyptian customs with those of the rest of Africa. Examples include funerary rites seen in the pyramids of Meroë (photo).
Carthage
This city-state was founded by the Phoenicians during the 9th century BCE in modern Tunisia. According to legend, Queen Dido was responsible for its creation. Carthage was a commercial and military power that rivalled Rome for two centuries. In fact, it was during this period that Hannibal, the famous Carthaginian general, crossed the Alps with elephants to launch an attack in the heart of enemy territory.
Land of Punt
While its exact location remains unknown, the Land of Punt was probably situated south of the Red Sea. Ancient Egyptians spoke of Punt as a valued trading partner. In the 15th century BCE, Queen Hatshepsut commissioned a major naval expedition to Punt that returned with incense, ivory, and myrrh trees. The voyage was immortalized in bas-relief sculptures adorning her mortuary temple.
Mauritania
This Maghreb kingdom was a federation of Moorish (or Berber) tribes annexed by Rome in the first century during the reign of Caligula. In Cherchell, Algeria, visitors can still admire a round, African-style tomb decorated with Hellenistic patterns (photo) that houses the remains of Cleopatra Selene, daughter of Egypt’s last queen and wife of King Juba II of Mauritania.
Kingdom of Aksum
Ethiopia has given rise to several civilizations since antiquity. The Kingdom of Aksum, one of the largest Ethiopian states, arose in the first century and eventually developed its own language (Ge’ez), alphabet, and money. It left behind numerous monuments, including the obelisk depicted in this drawing. Aksum was also one of history’s first Christian states. Christianity became its official religion all the way back in the fourth century.
Jolof Empire
This large medieval Muslim empire was founded in the 13th century in present-day Senegal and Gambia. It produced a common culture and language, Wolof, which is still spoken there today. Numerous iron, silver, brass, and gold ornaments from this period testify to a highly skilled population. The empire finally split into several kingdoms in the 16th century.
Ashanti Empire
This empire rose to prominence in what is now Ghana near the end of the 17th century. Thanks to mining and trade in gold and jewelry (photo), the Ashanti people enjoyed a prosperous existence. British traders on the coast saw a source of fabulous riches and initially established commercial ties with the empire, namely in slave trading. They did not begin to colonize the area until the late 19th century.
Republic of Salé
This maritime city-state came into existence following the expulsion of ancient Muslims, known as Moriscos, from Spain in the 17th century. Some settled around the Casbah of the Udaya, a medieval Moroccan fortress (photo), then revolted against the local sultan to proclaim their own republic. The new state then proceeded to live off the spoils of piracy in retaliation against Spain’s seizure of Morisco property.
Ajuran Sultanate©Wikimedia Commons
Somalia was once home to a series of sultanates. Ajuran, one of the most powerful, ruled over a large portion of the Horn of Africa from the Middle Ages until the 17th century. Its impressive architectural heritage includes protective fortifications built to guard against foreign invasion and highly sophisticated hydraulic systems for improving agriculture.
Kingdom of Benin
This kingdom arose in the 13th century in the forests of present-day Nigeria. It prospered for many centuries thanks to trade in gold and slaves. Benin is particularly famous for the Benin Bronzes, a group of brass and bronze sculptures and plaques (photo). The kingdom also served as a regional commercial hub under the control of the Oba, or king.
Hausa
The Hausa occupied several city-states in the Sahel region starting in the 15th century and are remembered for their skilled leatherwork (photo). According to one origin myth, the Hausa were descended from Bayajida, a man from Baghdad who married the Queen of Daura (now part of Nigeria) and brought about numerous changes in the Indigenous society, such as ending its matriarchy.
Bambara kingdom of Ségou
The Bambara people were originally part of the Mali Empire, but when the Empire adopted Islam during the Middle Ages, many of them migrated to Ségou, where they founded an animist kingdom. In the 18th century, under the reign of Mamari “the Commander” Kulibali, the Bambara kingdom grew into a powerful state with its own army and navy. The Commander, whose tomb can be see in this photo, continues to inspire legends to this day.
Zulu Kingdom
The Zulus formed a kingdom in the 19th century under the leadership of Shaka, a mythical chief who created a formidable army and brought his people into political unity. They enjoyed a reputation as fierce warriors who fought and often defeated white colonists in southern Africa. The South African province of KwaZulu-Natal still has a symbolic king.
Tuareg people
These nomadic tribes of Berber origin have lived for centuries in the Sahara, where they long held control over trade routes. Today, they are dispersed among several north African countries and the Sahel region. While their reputation as skilled warriors has long been celebrated, the Tuareg also enjoy a vibrant culture and an oral tradition passed down by women. According to legend, the Tuareg trace their origin back to a common female ancestor.
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十大古文明及其首都位置 ----- Joshua Chiedu
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本文原載於一份旅遊雜誌；它不是學術性文章；這可能是此文未介紹中國的原因。
10 Greatest Civilizations The World Has Ever Known And Where Their Capital Cities Are Located Today
JOSHUA CHIEDU, 10/08/23
With so much importance placed on these ancient cities, they often held the greatest treasures of the oldest civilizations they served.
SUMMARY
* Ancient civilizations built capital cities that served as the heart of their territories, holding great treasures and historical significance.
* Rome, Carthage, and Athens were capitals of ancient civilizations that left a significant impact on history and can still be explored today.
* The location of ancient capital cities such as Carthage, Rome, and Uruk can still be visited in present-day Tunisia, Italy, and Iraq, providing valuable insights into the lives of historic people.
Throughout human existence, several ancient civilizations have sprung up in different parts of the world. As they grew in size and strength, they established cities, some of which were kept aside to serve as their capitals from where they ruled their territories. With so much importance placed on these cities, they often held the greatest treasures of the civilizations which they served.
To invaders of old, these ancient cities around the world were often viewed as the heart that needed to be struck to bring down the entire body, but for history lovers in the modern day, the world's ancient civilizations and their capital cities today are the best places to learn more about historic people and where they lived.
From the ancient Sumerian civilization to Ancient Egypt, here are the greatest civilizations the world has ever known and where their capital cities are located in the ancient and modern world.
10 Ancient Carthage
The Carthaginian Civilization was, without a doubt, one of the great civilizations to ever exist in the world. The origins of this ancient Semitic civilization date to the 9th century BC when it was founded by the sea-trade-loving Phoenicians. The civilization quickly grew and soon became the dominant power in the Mediterranean.
Its reign over the region, however, would eventually be greatly threatened by Ancient Rome and would eventually come to an end in 146 BC after decades of fierce Naval and ground battles with the relentless Romans.
Location of the capital city: Carthage was the capital of the Carthaginian civilization, and it is located in the present-day city of Tunis in Tunisia.
9 Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a mighty civilization founded in the 8th century BC in what is now present-day Rome, Italy. The empire was one of the largest in history, and it dominated the Mediterranean and large parts of Europe for a long time until its fall in 480 AD.
It was one of the most successful civilizations in history, and a great deal of inventions has been attributed to it, including concrete, the Roman amphitheater, welfare, newspapers, and many more.
Location of the capital city: Rome was the capital of Ancient Rome, and the city still exists today in present-day Italy.
8 Etruscan Civilization
The Etruscan civilization was one of the first civilizations in the world that originated in the Italian peninsula. Its origins date to around 900 BC, and it quickly grew to become the dominant power in Italy until it was conquered by Ancient Rome in the 3rd century BC. Ancient Rome then went on to adopt a great deal of Etruscan culture and inventions.
Like some other civilizations around the Mediterranean, Etruscan civilization was made up of independent city-states, so it did not necessarily have a capital city. The Etruscan Civilization, however, had a few notable cities like Veli, Caere, Tarquinia, Populonia, and Vulci, although most of these cities were destroyed by the Romans.
Veli was the richest city-state during the reign of the Etruscan civilization, but it was completely destroyed when the Romans invaded the city in 396 BC. The ruins of Veli today can be seen at Isola Farnese, Lazio, Italy, but they do not contain significant Etruscan creations.
Important Etruscan cities: Populonia and Tarquinia were two important Etruscan cities, and they are among the best places to see remains of this great civilization. Populonia is located in the town of Piombino in the province of Livorno, while Tarquina is in the province of Viterbo in the Lazio region.
7 Achaemenid Empire
With a territory covering an area of 5.5 million square kilometers (2.1 million square miles), the Achaemenid Empire was the largest empire in the ancient world. It was an ancient Iranian empire and was founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC.
The empire grew for several centuries and threatened the ancient world with its mighty military strength, conquering great civilizations, including the kingdom of Lydia, the Babylonian Empire, Ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and many others. In 330 BC, however, the empire fell to the young King of Macedon - Alexander the Great, who founded many cities in the ancient world.
Location of the capital city: Persepolis was the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, and this city is located in the city of Marvdasht in modern-day Iran.
6 Indus Valley Civilization
The Indus Valley Civilization was one of the greatest ancient civilizations in history that once thrived in the territory now occupied by several countries in South Asia, including Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India. It is one of the three oldest civilizations in the world - the other two being the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt.
The Indus Civilization was also the most extensive of the three oldest civilizations in the world. It was founded in 3300 BC and declined around 1300 BC due to climate change, which reduced the city’s water supply and forced its citizens to migrate, thereby leading to the fall of the civilization.
Location of the capital city: The Indus Valley Civilization had two major capital cities known as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. Mohenjo-daro can be found in the province of Sindh, while Harappa can be found in the province of Punjab, both in modern-day Pakistan.
5 Phoenicia
Phoenicia was an ancient Semitic civilization that originated from the eastern Mediterranean around 3000 BC and lasted up to 332 BC when it fell to Alexander the Great. The people that made up this civilization were Canaanites, and they built their civilization around maritime trading. They were excellent sailors who established several port cities around the Mediterranean to aid their maritime trade, and Carthage was one of these cities.
Cities established by the Phoenicians were often independent and did not form part of a larger empire like other ancient civilizations, so there was no central city that controlled their territory. A few Phoenician city-states, however, grew to become incredibly wealthy and important, and at the top of the list are - Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos. These cities are all located in Modern-day Lebanon, and they all hold jaw-dropping history.
Tyre was the birthplace of Dido - the founder of Carthage, and Europa - the mother of King Minos of Crete. Sidon was the oldest son of Canaan according to Genesis 10:15, which most likely makes it the oldest Phoenician city.
Byblos is considered one of the oldest inhabited cities in the world. It is the birthplace of the Alphabet, which eventually made its way to Ancient Greece, so the Western world has this Phoenician city to thank for its written languages.
The most important Phoenician cities: Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos, all located in modern-day Lebanon
4 Minoan Civilization
The Minoan Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization that is regarded as the oldest civilization in Europe. The civilization was founded around 3100 BC on the Island of Crete, and it flourished until the 15th century BC when it was destroyed by conquerors from the mainland.
The Minoan Civilization is famous for its vibrant art, massive structures, and pottery. The Civilization is also the setting of the legend of the Minotaur.
Location of the city center: Knossos was the capital of the Minoan Civilization and was where the largest Palace of Minos was located. Knossos is also the site of the labyrinth where the Minotaur was kept, and its ruins can be found in the present-day town of Heraklion, on the island of Crete in Greece
3 Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was a civilization in North Africa that is today regarded as one of the most incredible civilizations ever to exist. Egypt is one of three considered the most ancient civilizations in the world - the other two being the civilization of Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley Civilization.
Although several small tribes existed in the region as far back as 5000 BC, Egypt became a unified civilization around 3100 BC. Soon, the civilization became a dominant power in the Mediterranean and invented many great things, including the construction of the Great Pyramids, writing, Papyrus Sheets, black ink, the calendar, clocks, medicine, and mummification.
For thousands of years, Egypt flourished until 332 BC, when it fell to Alexander the Great.
Location of the capital city: Egypt had several capitals throughout its long reign, but Memphis and Thebes were the most popular. Memphis was the first capital of Ancient Egypt, and today, its ruins can be found 20 km south of Cairo, in the village of Mit Rahina, in Badrasheen, while the ruins of Thebes lie in modern-day Luxor (one of the most ancient cities in the world today)
2 Ancient Greece
An aerial view of the Ancient Acropolis of Athens and other buildings in Greece
Ancient Greece is one of the most popular civilizations the earth has ever known and is home to some of the most historic cities in the world today. This civilization rose up in the 8th century BC after the fall of the Mycenaean civilization and lasted up to 323 BC when Alexander the Great died.
The civilization was made up of city-states, and it is famous for its numerous achievements that form the root on which the Western civilization was built. So many things were invented in Ancient Greece, including democracy, philosophy, free speech, the Olympic Games, poetry, and the Greek alphabet, which was a modification of the Phoenician alphabet.
Ancient Greece did not have a capital city as it was not united under a single throne or government. It was instead made up of city-states, most of which were in constant conflict with each other. Without a doubt, the most popular city-state in Ancient Greece was Athens.
This city is one of the oldest cities in the world and is where some of the civilization’s most important achievements were made, which makes it widely regarded as the birthplace of Western Civilization. Today, Athens is still in existence, and it is the best place to learn about the history of the Ancient Greek civilization.
1 Sumerian Civilization
The Sumerian Civilization has been hailed as being the oldest civilization the world has ever known. The civilization was located in Mesopotamia, and it came into existence around 3300 BC, after which it quickly grew to become powerful in the region.
Sumer was made up of several city-states where the Sumerians lived and flourished, inventing incredible things, including writing, art, architecture, and pottery. The Sumerian Civilization is credited for inventing the oldest known text in the world.
Despite being of the same origin and sharing the same culture and language, Sumerian city-states were often at war with each other, which left them vulnerable to invaders, including the Elamites, Sargon (who founded the Akkadian empire), and the Gutians.
The Sumerian civilization eventually came to an end when the Amorites invaded and took over the cities. Soon, the Sumerian culture became absorbed into the Amorite culture, and a powerful empire known as Babylon was born.
Ancient Sumer did not have a central capital city, but it had several cities that became greatly important during its existence. Uruk was one such important city and the most popular in Sumerian history. It was the first major city of the Sumerian civilization and, by extension, the first city of the ancient world. Uruk was once ruled by Gilgamesh, who built great walls around the city.
Ur was also an important Sumerian city at a time, and the ruins of this city can be found in Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq. Ur is believed to be the birthplace of Abraham.
Most important city in Ancient Sumer: Uurk was the most popular city in the Sumerian Civilization, and its ruins can be found today in Al-Warka, Muthanna Governorate, Iraq
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