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古代文化/文明小檔案 – 開欄文
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瀏覽4,916 ｜回應33｜推薦2 |
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我最近讀到兩篇介紹文化/文明的報導。由於我在寫一篇討論建劬兄《走出歐洲中心主義的心路歷程 -- 命運共同體 VS 文明衝突論》的文章，順帶把它們轉登在此處做為參考資料。我不日會提出我對「文化」和「文明」淺見，在該文中將說明「文化/文明」一詞的用法。
過些時間，我會把關於中國考古工作的資訊整理一下，發表在此欄。
本文於 修改第 3 次
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比甲骨文更早的陶文：如今又被破解一个，難怪會有女媧崇拜
搜狐網，2023-12-13 07:30 ，發佈於：江蘇省
按照演化規律，原生文字一般會經歷原始文字、初熟文字、成熟文字等階段，因此作為成熟文字的甲骨文，不可能從天而降，之前必然還有文字。
現代考古發現，甲骨文之前的確已有文字，最典型的是陶文。郭沫若曾指出“彩陶上的那些刻劃記號，可以肯定地說就是中國文字的起源，或者中國原始文字的孑遺。”（下圖，陶寺遺址陶文之一，被解讀為“文”）
由於陶文不像甲骨文那樣成文，多為單個字元，鮮有多個字元相連，這就給破解增添了很大的難度，兼之時移世易等原因，導致至今都沒能破解幾個陶文。
鮮為人知的是，近些年來，經過學者多年潛心研究，又一個陶文被破解，即下圖彩陶上的四個相同的符號。有興趣的朋友，可以先試一試，看看能否破解。該陶器源自甘肅一帶的馬家窯文化，距今5000餘年，屬於仰紹文化廟底溝類型向西發展的一種地方類型。
馬家窯的大巫師
馬家窯這件彩陶上，中心其實不是人物，而是一個“蛙神”化身，是一種生殖崇拜和蛙神崇拜的結合圖騰。
更為重要的是，蛙圖案是仰紹文化和馬家窯文化的顯著特徵之一，類似“蛙神”崇拜至今猶存，比如古羌人南遷遺留下來的一支後裔壯族，至今還遺留著蛙圖騰的崇拜遺跡。之所以崇拜蛙神，應是青蛙與風雨、季節有著很大關係，且生殖能力強大等。
又由於“媧”和“蛙”是諧音，因此不少學者認為女媧就是“蛙神”崇拜的歷史遺留。當然，馬家窯“蛙神”是不是女媧崇拜的源頭，還需要進一步探討。（下圖，另一件馬家窯彩陶）
可見，馬家窯這件彩陶上的“人物”，其實是一個能與天地溝通的大巫師或蛙神化身。其實，在上古時能被彩陶隆重繪製的形象，必然非比尋常，說明其在部落中地位極為崇高，而以現代研究來看，當時地位最高的是巫師一類人物。
由於四個字元寫在神秘蛙神的四肢上方位置，甘肅省馬家窯文化研究會會長王志安認為“所表達的意旨應該就是生殖巫術”。
問題在於，彩陶上核心是一個巫師，那麼四周四個相同字元，到底代表什麼意思呢？甲骨文破解謎團！
甲骨文破解謎團
馬家窯彩陶的形成過程，是先用毛筆（或類似工具）繪製、書寫文字，然後經過一千度左右的高溫燒制，最終形成彩陶。
上圖繪製精美，四個陶符一樣，分佈於某個神秘人物周邊，因此陶符必非隨意之作，必然有其特殊的含義。而在甲骨文中，有與之一模一樣的文字（見下圖）。
甲骨文中的巫，由兩個工字形的構件交叉組合而成，西周時期字形沒有改變。真正出現改變的是戰國之後，“工”的左右逐漸訛變為兩個“人”形，仿佛在翩翩起舞。
因此，現在不少學者認為巫字源于巫舞，表示女巫以跳舞動作請求神靈降臨，但以巫字最初的字形來看，巫字來源應與“舞”沒有關係，反而更像巫師行法時的法器，或者是上古某種工具等。當然，巫字最初本義究竟如何，還需要進一步探究。
不過，馬家窯文化與甲骨文相隔1700餘年，那麼能不能說馬家窯的這個陶符就是甲骨文上的“巫”呢？其實完全可以，原因有二：
首先，巫師是上古一個關鍵職業，在各個部落不可或缺，這就決定了巫字非常重要，必然會得到長期傳承，從馬家窯文化時傳到商朝卻沒有什麼變化，再正常不過了。
其次，“巫”應有神奇力量，就像倉頡造字時的“天雨粟，鬼夜哭”，因此馬家窯彩陶上寫了四個巫字，呼應中間的巫師，圖畫與字元可以互相印證，進一步證明該字元是巫字。
對於彩陶上的巫字作用，上述學者王志安指出：該彩陶上的“巫”字就代表著巫的活動，向神鬼報功祈福，並轉達鬼神降福之意。
最後，關於本文話題，還有兩點值得一談：
首先，談及中國文字，很多人誤以為甲骨文才是中國考古發現的最早的文字，但實際上比甲骨文更早的文字早已被發現，比如上述巫字，只是不像甲骨文那樣成系統而已。
其次，既然甲骨文之前已有文字，留存極少的原因，或與文字載體有關，甲骨文顯示商朝日常使用簡牘文書，因此簡牘文書起源可能很早，導致史前文字沒能更多的保留下來。
參考資料：《甘肅省馬家窯文化研究會會長王志安——馬家窯文化彩陶上發現中國最早可釋讀文字》
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陝西發佈重大考古成果 – 陝視新聞
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剛剛，陝西重大考古成果發佈
12月21日，國家文物局發佈“考古中國”重大專案進展，四個專案分別來自陝西、湖北、湖南，跨度上千年，既有展現中國古代祭祀制度的祭祀遺址，也有十六國至隋唐時期規模最大的獨立墓園。
以下兩個考古發掘項目來自陝西。
1. 下站遺址 研究先秦至西漢時期祭天禮制最為完備的實物材料
下站遺址位於寶雞市陳倉區磻溪鎮下站村，地處秦嶺北麓渭河南岸的台原之上，總面積約23萬平米，經勘探共發現各類祭祀坑1400餘座。從遺址出土“密”字陶文進一步明確了此處即是密畤。密畤從西元前672年一直延續使用到西漢晚期，前後長達600年，是研究先秦至西漢時期祭天禮制最為完備的實物材料。
秦、漢兩代在古雍地(今寶雞地區)曾先後設置鄜畤、密畤、吳陽上畤、下畤、北畤等五個國家祭天遺址，合稱“雍五畤”。
圖一：雍城遺址與寶雞地區祭祀遺址位置圖(請至原網頁觀賞；下同)
2020年、2022年，經國家文物局批准，陝西省文物局組織聯合考古隊對下站遺址進行了兩次考古發掘(圖二)，清理祭祀坑、房址、灰坑等各類遺跡，出土大量馬、牛、羊祭祀用犧牲，玉器、鐵器、青銅車馬器，以及磚、瓦、瓦當等遺物。
圖二：2020年下站遺址發掘區正射影像圖
下站遺址出土器物
祭祀坑是下站遺址最主要的遺跡，依形制不同可分為三類：
1.平行排列的南北向長條形祭祀坑，長約100米，寬約0.5-0.6米(圖三)。坑內主要埋藏牛，皆頭向北，排列緊密，擺放較有序。在牛之下，每隔一段距離還埋藏一隻羊。
圖三：長條形祭祀坑
2.南北向窄長形祭祀坑，形制與長條形祭祀坑相近，唯長度較短，約4-6米(圖四)。坑內埋藏牛、羊，牛一般為3-4頭，羊則多被壓于牛之下。
上述倆類祭祀坑並不見於血池遺址、吳山遺址。
圖四：窄長形祭祀坑
3.東西向長方形祭祀坑，按照犧牲種類不同可分為三類。馬坑，坑底擺放4匹馬(圖五)；牛坑，坑底擺放4頭牛；羊坑，坑底擺放4只羊，少數羊坑填土中出土玉圭，坑底擺放鐵臿。
圖五：長方形祭祀坑(馬坑)
下站遺址出土遺物主要發現於房屋、灰坑填土中，年代主要為戰國至西漢時期。其中，較重要的有玉人、玉璧、玉璋、玉圭殘件，以及“密”字陶文陶片、半兩錢、五銖錢、鐵臿等(圖六)。祭祀坑中除發現玉圭外，還出土玉節、玉環(殘)等玉器。
圖六：下站遺址出土器物
下站遺址的祭祀坑數量龐大、內涵豐富，祭祀坑類型與祭祀遺物，與血池遺址、吳山遺址具有較多共性，表明下站遺址與血池、吳山遺址性質相同，皆為畤祭祀遺存。
據《史記》記載渭河南岸僅有一處畤，即秦宣公四年所設密畤。下站遺址正位於渭河以南，遺址出土“密”字陶文進一步明確了此處即是密畤。
下站遺址進一步的工作將圍繞兩方面開展。一是在磚瓦堆積區域，尋找與祭祀活動有關的建築遺存，揭露秦漢祭祀遺址的整體佈局與內涵。二是以下站遺址豐富的祭祀遺存為基礎，建立秦漢祭祀遺址的分期年代尺規。
2. 北城村墓葬群截至今年已發掘墓葬385座
北城村墓葬群位於空港新城城北杜街道北城村，自貿大道以東，北杜大街以北，北杜北街以南的洪瀆原上。墓葬所在北城村東南距離咸陽國際機場4.5公里。西南距離唐上官昭容氏墓直線距離1.8公里，南距離漢哀帝義陵8.2公里，距離漢長安城21公里。
北城村墓葬群是一處以北朝至唐代墓為主體的墓葬群，尤其是II區的發現， 其圍溝的形制基本完整，圍溝內墓葬數量龐大，是近年來北朝考古的重要新發現。
該墓地的發掘自2021年開始，截至今年已經發掘墓葬385座，圍溝5處，灰坑106個，道路2條。整個發掘區可以分為I、II、III、IV四個部分。
II區圍溝內部分墓葬及西、北部圍溝正射影像圖
II區圍溝內已發掘209座北朝至唐代墓葬，這批墓葬分佈有序排列整齊，有著明顯的規劃佈局，墓道口位置基本一致，墓葬間距基本一致，應為一處有規劃的獨立的大型陵園。圍溝內的墓葬全部為東向，呈南北縱向排列，同一列墓葬大小規模基本一致，根據規模大小可以分為東西兩部分，截至目前西區發掘墓葬118座，東區發掘墓葬91座。
M3
東區墓葬均為規模較大的墓葬，由東向西呈5列分佈，這些墓道長度均大於15米，其中31座墓道長超過20米，墓室深度一般超過5米，最深的超過9米，墓葬形制以土洞墓為主，僅有1座磚室墓；7座開挖側室，其餘均為單室土洞墓。墓室內生土棺床多置於墓室西壁下，並有2座墓的棺床呈“L”形。墓葬大部分葬1人或2人合葬，也有3人以上合葬的情況，最多7人合葬。葬式多仰身直肢葬，少量屈肢葬和人為收斂葬。隨葬品主要為銅錢、銅飾，少量陶器、鐵器、泥餅等。
M2出土泥餅
西區墓葬的規模較小，東西向呈4列分佈，墓葬的墓道長度小於15米，墓室深度一般不超過5米，墓葬形制均為土洞墓，其中2座有側室，其餘均為單室土洞墓。西區墓葬近半數墓室內有生土棺床，其中大部分位於墓室西壁下，也有分別置於南、北壁下或環繞墓室一周的例子。墓葬大部分葬1人或2人合葬，也有3人以上合葬的情況，最多6人合葬。葬式多仰身直肢葬或人為收斂葬，少量屈肢葬。出土器物以銅錢為主，少量銅飾件、陶器、鐵器。
M2墓室人骨出土現狀
北城村墓葬群是近年來北朝考古的重要新發現，對於其具體年代的判斷，因其出土器物尤其是陶器較少，對墓葬年代的判斷主要依靠出土錢幣和紀年磚。
M135出土紀年磚(大統十五年)
出土紀年磚最早為北魏“太和五年”，墓葬位於東區第二列中部，西區第二列南部M135出土西魏“大統十五年”紀年磚，西區第四列南部M129出土唐“貞觀七年”紀年磚。
出土錢幣有北周布泉、五行大布，唐開元通寶。
出土紀年磚及銅錢
結合出土陶器，推測圍溝內墓葬西區的年代應在西魏至唐初這一時間段，東區墓葬應在北魏至西魏時期，整體而言由西向東，由南至北時代逐步變早。
根據體質人類學鑒定，人骨死亡多在壯年，男女比例基本為1：1左右，表明其人群之間必然有共同的血緣或者地緣關係，又或有相同的文化或職業背景等關係的疊加，人群內部的凝聚力十分強大。
出土文物
II區圍溝內墓葬分佈有序、排列整齊，有著明顯的規劃佈局，是一座大型獨立墓園。其墓葬形制與同時期其他已發現的墓葬存在明顯差異(均為東向)，葬式特殊(多墓室、多人合葬)，墓葬排列齊整(大型墓葬位於東側，中小型墓葬位於西側)，延續時間較長，但發現的陪葬品較少，都使其具有了強烈的獨特性。
其性質可能為北朝時期前所未見的大型族葬地或具有某類特殊身份人群的集中喪葬地，是北朝時期墓葬考古發現中所罕見，對研究北朝時期的墓葬形制演變、墓地規劃設置和相關祭祀制度及該時期人群構成、民族交匯融合具有十分重大的意義。
來源：文物陝西 責編：楊雪
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關於古埃及金字塔最驚豔的發現 -- Michelle Muller
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請至原網頁參看相關圖片。
Ancient Egypt’s Most Interesting Discoveries We Know about the Pyramids
Michelle Muller, 10/26/23
Ancient Egypt may be long gone, but excavations of Egypt’s ancient sites have continued steadily since the early 20th century, with each discovery giving us insight into the intricacies of a civilization that made remarkable advancements in nearly every field of human knowledge.
Given that some 4,700 years have elapsed since the Great Pyramid’s completion, the structure stands remarkably intact. Some believe that Ancient Egyptians had help from extraterrestrial beings, while others think they had tools and technologies more advanced than we ever imagined. Even today, many tombs remain to be excavated, assuring more amazing finds yet to come.
The Invention of The Wheel
It is claimed that the very first pyramid in Egypt was built around 4,700 years ago, during the Third Dynasty, when ancient civilization hadn’t yet discovered the wheel! That means that they had assembled these gigantic structures seemingly without using wheels for transportation. Now that is impressive!
Because the pyramid was constructed using bulky granite and limestone blocks, there was no way they could’ve relocated them using wooden rails and ropes.
Who Built the Pyramids?
The only evidence scientists have from that period is that the Egyptians only had ropes and wooden ramps to build their structures and fortresses. According to calculations, in one day, they would have had to lay down a new block every two and a half minutes to finish the construction in 20 years!
There is no concrete evidence of how the Egyptians build something so incredibly big and extremely precise. Therefore many historians, archaeologists, and scientists believe that the pyramids were built by a civilization that was even more advanced.
To Build The Pyramids
The largest pyramid and the most massive structure in the world is the Great Pyramid, built around 2550 BC, during Pharaoh Khufu's reign. Scientific research says it was built by 20 000 people, and it took them 20 years to complete it.
When we look at it through our modern perspective, it seems highly unlikely that the ancient people managed to build such a magnificent project only using wood and ropes—no wonder it took so long!
The Pyramids Used to Look Much Different
The Great Pyramid appears to blend with the sand and dirt surrounding it, but these pyramids looked utterly different back in the day. The surface layer was covered with shiny, white polished limestone, which made the pyramids shine.
Sadly, there was a strong earthquake in 1303 AD that caused the limestone layer to loosen, so people had to take the surface stones off. Of course, these stones didn’t go to waste. They were reused for fortresses and other structures.
How Many Sides Does the Pyramid Have?
When you think of a pyramid, it's a geometrical shape with four sides. However, that's not exactly the case with the Great Pyramid. It may look like it has four sides when you look at it from the ground; the Great Pyramid actually has eight sides. If you were to fly over the pyramids in a plane, your perspective would change, and you would see that the pyramid does have eight sides, not four.
Some experts believe it was constructed this way to prevent the stones from shifting. Others believe that erosion from the wind caused the pyramid to split into eight sides. There is no evidence to prove either of these theories, but the sides seem so precise that it seems unlikely that wind could’ve made that happen.
Evidence of Advanced Tools
Scientists believe that ancient civilizations had more advanced tools than we believe; a significant piece of evidence was found in Khufu’s Sarcophagus. Archaeologists, who worked on this site, discovered the evidence of drills that were strong enough to drill through granite blocks. Khufu, who was behind the Great Pyramid construction, had a coffin that weighs over 3.5 tons.
The only rational conclusion is that the stone was brought to this place before. The sarcophagus stood separate from other blocks in a room inside the pyramid, with holes that had to be made by humans. Considering that it was made of granite, the block was way too dense to have been drilled with anything other than advanced tools, which supposedly did not exist at that time.
The Labyrinth Beneath the Pyramids
We already know about the intricate labyrinth underneath the pyramids, but we don’t know how long it is and where it can lead us. The sophisticated tunnel system is made from limestone bedrock, and some of the most notable archaeological discoveries were made in them. Even though archaeologists have dug quite far into these tunnels, they still haven’t scaled every corner nor found the end of the labyrinth.
Conspiracy theorists maintain that scientists are keeping this underground world full of catacombs a secret from the public. All that we now know is that the labyrinths under the Great Pyramid stretch 55 miles south of Cairo, underneath Hawara.
A Mysterious Chamber?
One of the most recent findings inside the Great Pyramid was a hidden chamber. Archeologists were only able to discover the mysterious chamber using advanced technological imaging that record fragment particles deep within the rocks. They used cosmic-ray imaging, which is similar to X-Ray imaging, but it can penetrate farther into the pyramids' structure.
Even though this technology has significantly advanced, the images it provides are still low in quality and resolution. Therefore, scientists are still uncertain whether it is a single chamber or a different room series. They’re also not sure what the chamber was for, and whether something hiding inside it could show us an entirely new perspective about this ancient world...
On the Verge of New Discoveries
It has been hypothesized for centuries that the ancient pyramids could be generating some kind of energy. However, we still don't have any substantial evidence to lead us in the right direction to investigate this theory. After the Great Pyramid's hidden chamber was located, scientists also ascertained that the pyramid collects electromagnetic energy in its interior rooms.
To make things even more interesting, the higher amounts of energy were recorded in the rooms where people found the remains of Pharaoh Khufu and his wife's chamber.
Discoveries From the Inside
On August 1st, 2018, archaeologists made one of the most recent discoveries when they found a precious statue during a restoration project. The statue was found inside the Djoser pyramid in Saqqara, and it depicted Osiris, one of the most well-known Egyptian gods. Archaeologists were baffled by such an unexpected discovery, as the statue was placed inside an unknown crack within the wall.
This discovery was so peculiar because no one could figure out why they would place such a cherished statue in a random spot within the wall. Did it have any meaning? Or was it hidden for some reason? The head of the Saqqara archaeological site speculates that “the statue was probably hidden in this way by a priest of Saqqara in antiquity.”
Mysterious Boxes Inside the Tunnels
Brien Foerster discovered one of the most enigmatic discoveries inside this tunnel; he found 20 boxes built from Aswan granite. These rocks were cut into boxes with staggering accuracy. What’s even more striking is that each box weighs around 100 tons. Some assumed that these boxes were a burial site for prized animals and livestock, yet no evidence has been found to prove this speculation.
Some experts believed that these mysterious boxes also held some sort of energy. However, more established authorities seem to deny this view. We cannot know whether there is a chance of such a phenomenon, and we cannot be sure that the scholars tell us the whole truth. This is truly a mystery that makes you think.
Some Chambers Can Generate Heat
Scientists have now discovered that the giant pyramids emit heat from some rooms within the chambers while other sections remain cool. So, where could this heat be emanating from? The first hypothesis was that some kind of ancient technology could produce heat. Could this be, or is it merely an accident resulting from their construction?
The heat points were located in the upper half of the pyramid. Because of this, we can’t guarantee whether the heat is created from the sun reaching the upper half section of the pyramid or because there are more mysterious and undiscovered chambers.
Was the Great Pyramid a Power Plant?
History books will tell you that the Pyramids were exclusively used as cemeteries for pharaohs and kings. If this is true, why would they build such grand and impressive structures for no other purpose than laying their royals to rest? Some conspiracy theorists share a far more intriguing idea that the Pyramids were power plants and that the ancient Egyptians were an far advanced society who even had electricity.
Ultimately, there is definitive proof in etchings that depicted Egyptians holding torches that appear to be powered by electricity. And water flowing through the underground tunnels can create an electrical current. Scientific evidence also proves that the shafts inside the pyramid are crafted from slightly radioactive granite, ionizing the air, and creating an environment comparable to a conductive insulating cable.
Built With Air Shafts
While we're on the subject of shafts, the Great Pyramid was the only pyramid built with airshafts. Nevertheless, nobody can explain why. More importantly, these precise shafts align with the stars, which opens up a whole new set of mysteries. How did they succeed in creating such precise cuts without advanced tools? And what is the significance behind it?
Some assume that the star alignment shafts has to do with sending the deceased to the afterlife. Some more radical conspiracy theorists suppose that these alignments might have been used to signal to aliens. But, not all shafts reach the external area as some were shut off for no apparent reason.
The Massive 20 Ton Pyramid Doors
Believe it or not, the doors entering the pyramid weighed 20 tons, and, even more surprisingly, you could open them with a single push. No human can push a heavy 20-ton door open just like that unless we're talking about the pyramid doors. These doors were constructed with such a precise balance that you could easily push them if you wanted to enter.
These doors were first discovered when the Great Pyramid was being explored in the 1800s, and it took very little effort to push the doors open from the inside. So, how did this ancient civilization manage to create such an impressive entryway with no technology whatsoever?
Are There Passages to the New Chamber?
One of the more intriguing findings was a new mysterious chamber called the “big void.” After all, it definitely is a void since the chamber is not connected to any passages inside the pyramid. So what was it for, and why did the Egyptians create a totally disconnected chamber? Scientists believe this chamber was built to relieve some of the weight and prevent the Grand Gallery from collapsing in.
Now, tourists can walk through the Grand Gallery if they hunch down through a long tunnel. The Grand Gallery is attached to the Queen’s chamber, which can also be visited. Overall, the new chamber is about equal in size to the Grand Gallery, and it sits directly above it.
Lined Up With Constellations
It would seem that the ancient Egyptians enjoyed aligning their constructions. It’s not only their shafts that were aligned with the stars. All three Pyramids of Giza are connected to outer space. The Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure’s pyramids are aligned exactly with the famous Orion’s Belt stars. The pyramids are aligned with three stars Alnitak, Alnilam, and Mintaka.
Like many ancient civilizations, the Egyptians studied the skies, taking measurements from the stars to accurately align their pyramids. But what is puzzling is that Orion’s Belt wasn’t discovered until 2000 years after the pyramids were built.
Did the Pyramids Have a Connection with the Sun?
There are those that believe the pyramids were built by aliens, while others hold the more sober approach that the pyramids were used as power plants. If these don't sound plausible, there is yet another speculation, one about the pyramids devoted to supporting their king's ascension to Sun Ra, the God of the Sun.
This kind of guidance to the afterlife could clarify why they wanted to align the pyramids with constellations and stars. And that could also be why they buried their kings with objects they could use in the afterlife.
Greater Precision Than the Royal Observatory
It is possible that the ancient Egyptians might have been more advanced than our civilization since their chambers point north with much better precision than the Royal Observatory in Greenwich. We’re not speaking about the general North but the specific direction towards the magnetic North.
Founded in 1675, the Royal Observatory in Greenwich sets the actual clock to GTC (Greenwich Mean Time or Prime Meridian Time.) If it took so many centuries to build the Royal Observatory, we can't help but wonder what kind of technologies and strategies the Egyptians were working with back in their time?
Evidence of Mathematics
We have some evidence that proves the ancient Egyptians knew mathematical constants. If we subtract the Great Pyramid length from its height, the result we get is 314.16 – 100 times Pi. If we then add the two sides together in meters, it equals 100 times Phi, also known as the Golden Number used in architecture, art, and theology.
What makes this so bizarre is that Pi as an official mathematical constant was not identified until 1793. Ancient Egyptians used cubits to take measurements, where one cubit equaled 0.536 meters. So, the circumference of a circle that has the diameter of a single cubit equals Pi. This means that Egyptians were capable of making complex calculations way before we originally thought.
The Structures Surrounding the Pyramids
Today, it seems like the pyramids stand isolated in a desert area with nothing surrounding them, but it wasn't that way back in their heyday, as many structures were encompassing the grand pyramids. However, the pyramids were still essential town structures, despite being surrounded by Necropolis, the allegedly smaller tombs. It’s kind of eerie when we think about it since Necropolis translates to the City of the Dead.
Other structures and buildings in the area included religious buildings and temples for honoring the king. The staff who worked in temples and looked after the kings also lived close by. The majestic Great Sphinx of Giza is also situated near the pyramids.
Who Built the Sphinx?
Just like the pyramids, the Sphinx carries a similar mystery. No one claims to know who constructed it and why exactly it was built. Two theories examine who was behind building the Sphinx. Some maintain that Khafre was the one who created the Sphinx and the second largest pyramid. If this was correct, it would suggest that the Sphinx was built around 2500 BCE.
But some archaeologists and scholars hold that the Sphinx is older than Kharfe and that it was commissioned by his father Khufu; he was the one who ordered the building of the Great Pyramid.
17 New Pyramids!
As if all these discoveries weren't enough, archaeologists and scientists have also uncovered 17 more pyramids. They used satellite technology to detect hidden structures underneath Earth's surface, and they found 17 pyramids around Giza. But that's not all; they also revealed over one thousand burial sites hidden underneath the sand in the area thanks to their infra-red technology.
Crews on the ground are already studying and examining two of these newly discovered pyramids. Even though new pyramids are still being found, the oldest one remains the Pyramid of Djoser.
The Oldest Pyramid
The oldest of all known pyramids, the Pyramid of Djoser, is believed to be built during the 27th century BC. Unlike the Great Pyramid that is surrounded by burial sites and graves, the Pyramid of Djoser is enclosed by a courtyard and numerous ritual embellishments. The structure has sustained a lot of damage, as weather conditions severely corroded it.
Unlike other pyramids, the Pyramid of Djoser also features a smaller pyramid edifice known as the mudbrick structure, which comprises multiple complexes. Inside this pyramid, we will find a burial chamber, but, surprisingly, archaeologists did not find a body inside it when the pyramid was discovered. There is some indication that the pyramid may have been used as King Djoser's tomb.
A Structure Taller Than the Pyramid of Giza
The Pyramid of Giza held the title of the world’s tallest structure for a total of 3 871 years. In other words, it took humanity approximately 4 000 years to construct a new building taller than the pyramid. The next tallest structure that came close was the Lincoln Cathedral in England, which was built in 1311. What’s even more surprising is that the ancient Egyptians built the pyramids in 20 years, but building the English Cathedral took more than 200 years to build!
If we look at the Cathedral of Lincoln now, we wouldn’t consider it to be taller than the impressive Pyramid at Giza. Nonetheless, that’s because the Cathedral’s central spire collapsed in 1549, after which it was never reconstructed. This Cathedral was the world’s tallest building for a total of 238 years, but its importance lies in the record it broke!
The Last of the Seven Ancient Wonders
It is important to mention that the Great Pyramid is the only one of the Seven Ancient Wonders of the World. This is quite unbelievable because it was built between 2584 and 2561 BCE. There is no doubt that this ancient structure has managed to stand the test of time as inclement and oppressive weather conditions could not destroy it throughout the centuries.
The Statue of Zeus was ruined by an earthquake, just like the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. The Temple of Artemis was wrecked and ravaged by a Christian mob in 401 CE, while the Colossus of Rhodes was toppled down in 654 CE. In other words, none of these structures could compare to the pyramids in durability and strength.
On the West Embankment
It seems peculiar that pyramids were all built on the same side of the river Nile – along the west embankment. The pyramids had to face the Sun as it was believed that the Sun was the dead's home. Another reason is that the Egyptian kings dreaded that they would be robbed after death, which is why they took their gold and valuables into their tombs. They believed the pyramids could protect and guard them in the afterlife as well.
As brilliant as their plans and complicated designs had seemed, they weren’t quite sufficient to prevent grave-robbers. Even though the bodies were buried in chambers that could be reached only by those who knew their way around the secret passages, grave-robbers still managed to locate their way to the lavish tombs.
Into the Afterlife
Ancient Egyptians devoutly clung to their beliefs in the afterlife. That is why Egyptians were buried with different objects and possessions supposed to help them in the afterlife. These objects included everything from gold to expensive jewelry to random everyday items, even food!
Another thing Egyptians attempted to bring along to their “afterlife” were little statues. Historians and archaeologists eventually discovered that it was believed that these miniature statues come to life in the next world to help and care for the pharaoh. When one tomb was found, archaeologists recovered over 400 statues inside.
A Kurdish Ruler and the Pyramids
Someone brave enough aspired to demolish the pyramids and ruin the Ancient Egyptian legacy in the 12th century. Al-Aziz, a Kurdish ruler, wanted to destroy the pyramids, so he went along tried to execute his plan but he soon found that destroying the pyramids would be as expensive as it took to build them, and he gave up soon after.
Al-Aziz did manage to leave his mark on the Menkaure’s Pyramid. If you visit the pyramid today, you will see a massive slash on one side. That’s all that Al-Aziz managed to achieve during his intention to demolish one of the most stunning structures in the world. This score stands to establish just how unyielding and sturdy these structures genuinely are.
Seen From the Moon
According to scientific estimations, the pyramids could have been seen from the moon, thanks to their reflective surfaces. Even the people residing in the hills and mountains in neighboring Israel could view the majestic pyramids.
The ancient Egyptians termed the Great Pyramid “Ikhet,” which translates to “glorious light.” Nevertheless, we will never honestly know how bright the structure was.
The Temperature Inside the Pyramids
Even though it was evident that some parts of the pyramids produce mysterious heat, the building itself remains comparatively cold on the inside. The official temperature readings show that the most common temperature inside the pyramid is around 68 degrees Fahrenheit. So not only did the ancient Egyptians create such an architectural masterpiece, they incorporated a cooling system using nothing but “archaic” tools.
The pyramid’s ventilation system is made of airshafts that were strategically placed. Once these shafts are opened, they immediately let cool air inside the chamber. As soon as you open them, the temperature in the chamber drops quickly. However, what is so mind-blowing is that no matter the temperature outside, the temperature inside the pyramids always remains 68 degrees. No one knows how this is possible without any machinery and technologies maintaining the temperature.
The Pyramids Were Not Built By Slave Workers
We used to think that the pyramids, just like everything else, were built by slaves. However, recent research proves that the pyramids were constructed instead of paid workers who spent hours upon hours designing and planning these elaborate structures. It took over 20,000 people to build the pyramids, and these paid workers were highly valued for creating this work of art.
The evidence about these paid workers only came out in 2010. Before that, we all accepted that it was slaves who labored to build the pyramids at Giza. Archaeologists unearthed tombs of the paid workers during an assignment, and the fact that their bodies had been preserved in the sand and buried along with food explains that these people were not poor slaves.
The Substance Used to Glue Bricks of the Pyramids
We do not doubt that the pyramids are the most stable structures in the world. They were built of stone, but the ancient people needed something to keep the stones together. Unfortunately, even contemporary experts still don’t know what was used to glue the rocks together. It is evident that some kind of adhesive had to be put in place, but they still haven’t figured it out.
For all we know, the “adhesive” that ancient Egyptians used is incredibly strong. This strong paste between the massive stones is so strong that it has made the pyramids indestructible and able to resist earthquakes, unfavorable weather conditions, and intentional attacks.
The First Pyramids
As pyramid are geometrical shapes, they have four sides and a pointed tip, but not all pyramids had this point towards the sky. In fact, the earliest Egyptian pyramids originally had flat covers. These constructions did not even resemble the typical pyramids with the triangular sides. They were, however, used as tombs, just like the rest of the pyramids.
One of the oldest of Egypt's pyramids with a flat top is the Pyramid of Djoser, which is also the oldest pyramid in Egypt. All pyramids contained burial chambers, whether they had pointy tops or were flat. Although, the flat-top pyramids, known as Mastabas, had one particular purpose.
The Tombs of the People
Mastabas were small tombs with flat tops that contained their hidden chambers underground. However, it was not pharaohs who were buried in these tombs, but their loyal subjects. They were not as important to have their own pyramids, but they were given a place of rest in the flat-topped Mastabas.
Pharaohs wanted to bury their loyal subjects because they believed they would help and tend to them in the next world. Another popular Egyptian belief was that the dead needed to be guided so that their soul could move on to the afterlife.
The First Pyramid Architect
Many people are familiar with Imhotep, the famous character from the acclaimed movie, "The Mummy." And it was Imhotep who designed the first Egyptian pyramid. Imhotep was one of the most notable architects of his time, and he was also the chief minister of Djoser.
Imhotep outlined and planned the pyramid from the first blocks to the top. Because of this, King Djoser appreciated him so much that he authorized a statue to present Imhotep's name in the King's court, which was an honor like no other at the time.
The Egyptian Afterlife
We already established the purpose of the pyramids – to guide the kings and pharaohs’ souls into the afterlife. Egyptians seemed to have been obsessed with the afterlife. Therefore, they considered that life after death entailed returning to our origins.
However, unlike life on Earth, the ancient Egyptians maintained that life in the next world would be free from suffering and anguish of any kind.
The Hieroglyphics
We often associate hieroglyphics with the Egyptian pyramids, even though hieroglyphics were never encountered inside the pyramids. But there are chambers that are so little that only tiny robots can enter and explore them and a recent finding by one of these robots presented evidence of what seemed to be hieroglyphics.
The robot with a camera attached was able to capture footage of what looked like the first ever hieroglyphics found within a pyramid. Maybe these symbols could explain and clarify some of the mysteries attached to these ancient remains.
Could the Pyramids Tell Time?
The pyramids' incredible design was also planned in such a way so that it won't cast any shadows at noon. In other words, the Great Pyramid was not only an immemorial tomb but also a sundial, and it is one of the most complicated sundials ever built.
Sundials were used as one of the earliest objects to tell time. These age-old clocks would cast a shadow based on the sun's position and tell the time as accurately as the contemporary clocks we have today. What is positively startling is that ancient people succeeded in building such a large pyramid and use it as a sundial.
The Amount of Stones Used to Build the Pyramids
If we were to take all the stones used to build the pyramids, we could make a wall around France's entire border. We could theoretically make a ten-foot-tall wall solely utilizing these stones. The wall would be one-foot thick, and it would probably be one of the sturdiest walls in the world.
This leaves us questioning where did the ancient Egyptians acquire so many of these massive stones? Several experts hold that these were rocks that were collected around the Nile while others came from the nearby Quarries of Aswan. These sites still exist today, even though most of them have been flooded many times over the centuries.
Not a Tomb
The purpose of the Great Pyramid at Giza persists as the biggest mystery surrounding the ancient pyramids to this day. Because we are still nowhere near the truth, this enigma might persist for years to come. There was never an actual corpse or a mummy discovered in the Great Pyramid at Giza, causing many experts to deem that this pyramid was never meant as a tomb.
The pyramid was first explored back in 820 AD by Arab travelers, who only encountered a granite box identified as the “coffer.” This could suggest that the tomb was looted, and the mummy was stolen. However, there is still a chance that the Great Pyramid was not intended to be a burial site at all.
The Location Has a Special Meaning
According to the calculations by Dr. Joseph Seiss, he arrived at this thrilling conclusion in 1877, that the pyramids are located at the precise location where the world's most extended lines of longitude and latitude meet. The pyramids continue to surprise us, was this ancient nation aware of this when constructing the pyramids, or is it a genuine coincidence?
If it is a coincidence, then it is quite an exceptional one. This means that the Pyramids at Giza are so far the most carefully aligned structures in the entire world for all we know.
New Discovery Confuses Experts
Egyptologists were excited when they found a new pyramid, but what they found below left them with more questions than before! The discovery was made in Dahshur, a royal necropolis located in the desert on the Nile's west bank, around 40km from Cairo.
Archaeologists also unearthed the foundation of an immense tower that belongs to the 13th Dynasty. During the last few years, archaeologists have carefully investigated and examined the remains, eventually making their way down to the burial chamber.
Mystery Woman
Bits and pieces of wood were found in this burial chamber and they have finally been secured together; it turns out this a coffin lid with a beautifully carved face. The restoration has unveiled something surprising; this isn’t a king; it is a mystery woman.
The answer may lie in another article found near her grave, a case decorated with hieroglyphs. Experts were not only shocked by this discovery of this mystery lady within the burial chamber, but they also have no inkling who she might be.
What Is Her Name?
Coffins typically had similar features to the owner but idealized because they would look like for eternity. She was wearing the Hathor wig that was common throughout the Middle Kingdom and was worn only by women. What’s significant about this case is that we know it belonged to a princess because it reads ‘daughter of the king,’ with her name following.
But her name has the most damaged to it, which is very frustrating for the experts. Ancient Egyptians held firmly to the notion that the worst thing you could do to someone was to erase their name.
A Special Crown
This specific kind of design is particular to a king; it’s not what we would expect a lower royal family member to be in. Usually, a princess would only have a shaft tomb with a chamber at its base, making this entire discovery such a cryptic puzzle.
They also found other relics from the same era, including the crown of a Princess from Dahshur, made out of gold and decorated with semiprecious stones. The newly uncovered tomb believably contained materials very similar to this, many precious metals like gold, which was probably stolen a long time ago.
100 More Coffins
The Egyptian antiquities authority has published a discovery of at least 100 ancient coffins, some with mummies still inside, and about 40 intricate statues in a huge Pharaonic necropolis south of Cairo.
Sealed sarcophagi and statues that were laid to rest more than 2,500 years ago were presented in a makeshift display at the feet of the famed Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara. Archaeologists opened one coffin, with a well-preserved mummy encased and bound in cloth.
The Latest Findings
Khaled el-Anany, the tourism and antiquities minister, said in a news interview that the objects date back to the Ptolemaic dynasty that ruled Egypt for 300 years from about 320BC to about 30BC.
He clarified that they would move the artifacts to at least three museums in Cairo, including the Grand Egyptian Museum, that Egypt is building near the famed Giza Pyramids. This acquisition at the renowned site is the latest in a range of archaeological findings in Egypt.
Still More to Discover
With all these spectacular discoveries, there is still more to unearth, but urban development and sprawl threaten this cultural heritage. By no means has everything been explored and excavated around the Pyramids and its surroundings. The same is true of the great catacombs and tombs like the one in Saqqara.
For over 3,000 years, it was the main cemetery of the Egyptian capital, Memphis. If we were to look at old maps from the early 19th century, we could see that there are many sites to be excavated; archaeologists just haven’t got around to it until now.
It's a Race Against Time
Even with the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities' active support, the teams of archaeologists and scientists are under tremendous time pressure. It seems that many people are considering going to Egypt as well at some point because of these fascinating discoveries.
Nowadays, there are far more sight-seeing opportunities than there were just a few decades ago. And that, of course, is also always a good reason to go back to Egypt.
This article originally appeared on our sister site: history-a2z.com
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世界第一「壩」-趙黎黎/王磊/楊嵐
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重大發現！世界第一“壩”在湖北面世 為史前文明再添實證
12月4日，屈家嶺遺址考古工作專家現場會上發佈了荊門屈家嶺遺址考古新發現。經過近3年的全面調查和系統發掘，屈家嶺遺址新發現多組規模龐大、因勢而建的水利系統，為考察史前水利社會的形成和發展提供了重要證據。
屈家嶺遺址發現最早的水利系統，標誌著史前先民的治水理念從最初被動地防水禦水轉變為主動地控水用水，部分實現了從適應自然到改造自然的跨越。
屈家嶺遺址治水模式的探索，為史前單體聚落的水資源管理和利用提供了細節支撐。屈家嶺遺址的考古工作，展示了長江中游地區大型中心聚落的規劃理念、佈局演變和社會結構傳統，反映了長江中游不同於其他地區的文明路徑，為考察史前水利社會的形成和發展、長江中游文明的起源和演進提供了關鍵樣本。
近40名來自全國的考古研究專家前往遺址現場，見證人類文明探源工程研究再向前推進一步的重要時刻。
中國社會科學院考古研究所研究員何努指出，屈家嶺此次發現是中國最早的水利技術系統，在5000多年前代表的是最先進的生產力。我們以前往往注重的生產工具，這次發現是確定了長江中游體系也有水利系統、水控制體系，且更多用於灌溉，直接涉及到這個社會發展的一個農業的經濟命脈，代表的第一生產力的發展。通過水壩以及水利系統的發現，體現了生產力在屈家嶺這個階段有了巨大的飛躍，所以我們真真正正明白了技術是第一生產力這個硬道理。
世界第一“壩”在湖北面世 為史前文明再添實證
發現與良渚水壩同時期，距今約5100年至4900年前的多組水利系統，目前對熊家嶺、鄭畈兩處史前水利系統開展了詳細的考古工作，證實為迄今發現最早且明確的水利設施。
湖北省文物考古研究所史前考古部主任陶洋帶長江雲新聞記者趙黎黎走進熊家嶺水壩進行現場踏勘，沉寂約5000年的水利系統以及屈家嶺遺址群通過高程模型再現于世人面前，包括水壩、蓄水區、灌溉區、溢洪道等水利系統構成要素。
熊家嶺水壩坐落於青木壋河東-西向支流的河道上，水壩呈南北向，土築而成，連接南北兩端山體，以攔蓄水資源。
據陶洋介紹，基於江漢平原史前治水遺址的研究，在社科院考古研究所劉建國指導下，湖北省文物考古研究所從2020年便開啟了尋“壩”工作。通過早期衛星影像、海拔高空圖以及周邊水利系統要素的勘探，屈家嶺遺址有水利系統初露端倪，這令考古團隊分為欣喜，前後勘探有十幾處，目前已確定熊家嶺、鄭畈兩處，並歷時8個月完成熊家嶺水壩東西向剖面的解剖清理工作。
據測算，現存壩頂高約2米、寬約13米，壩底寬約27米，南北長約 180 米。水壩東側為蓄水區，與自然崗地合攏面積約19萬平方米;西側為灌溉區，約8.5萬平方米，植物考古的研究工作顯示該區域存在史前稻田。溢洪道位於蓄水區的北部缺口處，入口寬約 26 米，出口北抵青木壋河中上游，呈南高北低的走勢，展示出“因地制宜”的科學建設理念。
解剖性發掘顯示，熊家嶺水壩可分為早晚兩期，早期壩的寬度為10.2米，晚期壩的寬度26.6米，晚期壩在早期壩的基礎上加高加寬擴建而成。
在早期壩的使用過程中，壩體東側迎水面上沉積出淤沙層，其上存在包含細小燒土顆粒的灰燼層，晚期壩體即疊壓在灰燼層上。灰燼層中的炭化荒草種子表明，增築行為當發生於秋冬季的枯水期。
出土遺物、測年資料顯示，晚期壩的年代為屈家嶺文化早期晚段，絕對年代約4900年至4800年。 早期壩的年代不早于油子嶺文化晚期，不晚于屈家嶺文化早期晚段，範圍為5100年至4900年，是迄今發現最早且明確的水利設施。
蓄水用水旱澇不侵 5000年前古人治水智慧盡顯
據陶洋介紹，湖北江漢平原地區河網比較密集，水資源豐富，有時候又會雨熱不同期，因此蓄水用水防水治水十分必要，必須要處理和解決好人和水之間的關係，水利系統便是古人治水的產物，這也代表著從被動防水到主動控水的轉變。
熊家嶺水壩是集灌溉、抗旱、防洪三位一體的水利系統，另外，它也連通了殷家嶺、塚子壩南北兩大遺址，從事實上又形成了這兩個遺址之間的一個通道，也可以作為一種交通的路徑來使用。
走近土壩細看，早晚兩期壩體堆積明顯經過人工拍打、夯實或加固，局部位置揭露出因拍打、夯實而形成的“痕跡面”，可以看出是非常成熟的建造工藝。兩期壩體的各層堆積中，絕大多數都摻有禾本科植物根莖，應屬原始的“加筋工藝”。此外，在早晚兩期壩體堆積中發現“草裹泥”的痕跡。
使用草裹泥的原因，和現在修水利的草袋一樣，屬於一種加筋工藝，在良渚水壩建設中也使用了這項工藝，是建築臨水的土台、堤壩等設施時普遍使用的工藝，可使壩體加快固結，增加抗拉強度，不易崩塌。
史前文明已出現階級分化 或有古城統治者
草裹泥剖面還呈現出了明顯的分區，表明堆築時草裹泥是從不同地點運送過來的，一到即鋪築，沒有統一堆料過程。
這樣的工序需要先民們通力合作，共同完成。除了草裹泥外，熊家嶺水壩的堆築還需要大量的土。據勘探顯示，為縮減建設所需人力物力，水壩遺址鋪設于天然山體之間，周邊為沼澤區，在當時的生產力條件下設計營造，工程的規劃、設計與材料的採集、運輸、製作以及工程實施建造等工序，需要相當的管理組織能力。
吉林大學教授趙賓福在現場向記者介紹，從建築以及土壩製作工藝來看，裡邊的人工墊起來的大型基址，代表著這座高等建築主人身份非凡，可以說明在屈家嶺有了階級分化，或者說出現了所謂的王。
浙江大學劉斌教授也提出，與大禹治水概念不同，它是配套這個生活區、古城的一種建設，對用水的一種規劃，跟水陸交通運輸有關，水管理系統覆蓋的範圍越大，說明社會組織越大。
另外在水壩遺址內發掘出早期壩和晚期壩碎陶片，以及屈家嶺文化高等級建築區，這對水壩斷代起到直接的證據。
中國社會科學院考古研究所研究員何努指出，該水利工程必定是一個強權的組織來組織勞動力進行的大規模水利工程，在某種意義上說，這是一個國家行為。
通過這條黃色原始底層線，我們可以明顯看到緊實的壩體經過千錘百煉向地面下陷，也通過藍綠色水壩早晚期分界線，看到人類順應自然之變而變的軌跡，我們仿佛看到了5000年前新石器時代的人們肩挑背扛越過連片沼澤修起這座土壩，並利用水利灌溉系統近水而棲，繁衍生息的場景。
由此可見，屈家嶺文化時期的社會結構已經具備了應對複雜需求的社會組織管理能力以及成熟的水利系統建造工藝。
文明探源 活化歷史場景助力創新傳承
此次發掘獲取了探索長江中游史前文明化肇始的物證，首次將江漢平原和洞庭湖平原納入統一的文化共同體。屈家嶺遺址作為迄今發現規模最大的油子嶺文化聚落，考古工作揭示的最早水利系統、最早的快輪制陶工藝和磨光黑陶生產技術、聚“族”而葬的墓地形態，為我們生動展示了油子嶺文化的發展高度和社會結構，也進一步闡釋了油子嶺文化強勢擴張的動力。
距今 5100 年左右，屈家嶺遺址所在的漢東地區率先從油子嶺文化嬗變為屈家嶺文化。在屈家嶺遺址，油子嶺文化規劃、營建的水利系統被屈家嶺文化所繼承，並經過改造升級，發揮了更大的作用，促使聚落規模從105萬平方米擴展至284萬平方米。這一時期，龐大的聚落規模、縝密的水利系統、規整的環壕設施、高超的建築工藝，反映出屈家嶺遺址作為“壕堰式” 聚落的典型特徵，代表了長江中游地區與大型城址同級的新型中心聚落形態。
針對未來考古成果轉化，北京大學教授徐怡濤提出要活化歷史場景，把當年歷史狀態，通過考古學、建築學的研究複現出來，用科技的手段去展示它，甚至包括習俗、生活狀態、服飾等方面全方位的社會復原，通過一個點放到一個更廣闊的範圍做整體研究，對文明探源工程、弘揚文化自信提供強大的支撐。
當日同時公佈了多項考古新發現。其中，距今約5500年至5100年的油子嶺文化聚落範圍105萬平方米，為迄今為止發現的長江中游地區同時期面積最大的聚落，已確認水利系統、墓葬區、居住區和陶器生產區等。一系列最新考古發現展示了長江中游地區大型中心聚落的規劃理念、佈局演變和社會結構傳統，為考察長江中游文明的起源和演進提供了關鍵樣本。
(長江雲新聞記者 趙黎黎 王磊 楊嵐)
本文於 修改第 1 次
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查海遺址：非同一般的發現與意義 -- 翟德芳
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8000年前的查海遺址：非同一般的發現與意義
翟德芳，文博時空，12/01/23
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我的東北訪古之行，最後一站本來預定的是遼寧阜新的查海遺址，但不巧的是，轉到查海的那一天正好是星期一，是全國博物館的休息日，而我又著急趕回北京，所以就沒有訪成。幸運的是，我回到北京不久，就收到了曾擔任遼寧省考古研究所所長的田立坤學兄給我寄來的皇皇三大冊《查海：新石器時代聚落遺址發掘報告》。有了這麼豐富的材料，我決定還是寫一寫查海。這一篇就算是“紙上訪古”吧，說清楚紅山文化的來源，也算是為我的東北訪古畫了句號。
查海的發掘與發現
查海遺址位於遼寧省阜新蒙古族自治縣沙拉鎮北查海村西南約 2.5 千米的向陽臺地上，1982 年文物普查期間發現。遼寧省文物考古研究所於 1986—1994 年對之進行了 7 次考古發掘，已發掘面積 7800 餘平方米，發現的遺跡包括房址、室內室外窖穴、居室墓、中心墓葬和龍形堆石等；出土完整和可修復陶器 1177 件、石器 2411 件、玉器 44 件，以及大量的陶器殘片等。經碳十四測定並加樹輪校正，遺址年代距今約 8000-7000 年，是我國北方西遼河流域發現年代較早、保存完整、文化內涵豐富的一處新石器時代古人類聚落遺址。
查海遺址鳥瞰
遺址的 55 座房址佈局密集，排列有序，依據建築方法和佈局分析，這是一處精心規劃、長年形成的早期部落居住地。其中早期的房址集中在北部，以後由北向南分佈，同期房址成行排列，並有中心廣場和壕溝。
房址分為大、中、小 3 種類型。大型房址僅1座，面積約 120 平方米，中型房址面積 40-60 平方米，小型房址面積 15-20 平方米。大型房址處於聚落中央，房內只有少量的生活用器，推測這一大型房址可能是查海居民的聚會場所。由此分析，查海聚落已進入了成熟的、尊卑有序的氏族社會。人們通過這一較大的議事場所研究、決策氏族裡的重大事項，甚至是氏族的一切。
查海遺址的房址
幾乎所有的房址都是方形圓角，房址的居住面下凹、鑿入基岩。在那個沒有金屬生產工具的時代，這種鑿岩為穴的方法是有很大難度的。當時人們建房時，是在房址中間設 1 至 2 個灶址，四周分佈有序的柱洞，這是查海遺址房址建築獨有的特徵。查海遺址的房址多無門道設置，為防禦寒冷、抵禦野獸和外敵，建築形式都是屋頂開門。有的房址在南面東端向外突出，推測為出入口。
查海房屋的復原圖
查海遺址沒有發現單獨的墓地，但在遺址內發現多座墓葬，包括居室葬和居址葬兩類，居址葬均位於龍形堆石下方，應同祭祀活動有關；居室葬則是埋在房址的居住面之下，這是一種很有意思的現象。
該遺址出土的陶器大型器皆是粗砂陶，少數小型器見有細砂陶。陶色為紅褐和灰褐兩大類，均手制，多為泥條盤接和泥餅套接，少數為捏塑。器形以各類直腹或斜腹的筒形罐為主，其他的有缽、杯、紡輪。紋飾主要為附加堆紋和壓印的“之”字紋與幾何紋。
壓印之字紋的筒形罐
出土的石器有鏟形石器、斧、鑿、刀、磨盤磨棒、研磨器、溝槽器、石球等。製作方法有打制、磨制、琢制和使用自然石塊幾種。其中的雙孔盤狀鏟形石器很有特色。
查海遺址出土的磨盤與磨棒
查海遺址出土的雙孔石鏟
查海遺址出土的溝槽器
查海的龍與玉
查海遺址最為重要的發現，是龍的形象和玉器。
在查海的聚落中心、大型房址的西南方，用紅褐色玄武岩石塊擺塑了一條長 19.7 米、寬 1.8米-2 米的巨型龍形堆石。其龍頭、龍頸、龍體、龍鱗、龍爪、龍尾等擺放分明，龍頭向西南，龍尾向東北，昂首張口，體如彎弓，尾向後甩，有如正在騰雲駕霧。龍的前半部身體寬大，下方用石塊堆砌出像足又像雲霧的襯托物；由頭自身體向尾部逐漸變薄、變少，尾部更加鬆散細小且上翹，似雲中若隱若現。用於擺塑龍形的石塊大小相若，排列有序，龍頭、龍身的石塊堆砌得比較厚密，龍尾則比較鬆散，遠遠看去，紅褐色的石塊有如龍體鱗片，十分威武。就目前的發現看，這是我國新石器時代年代最早、體量最大的龍，可以稱其為 “中華第一龍”。
查海遺址的石堆龍
查海石堆龍在聚落中的位置
除此之外，考古人員在查海遺址還發現了類龍紋陶片兩件，皆為夾砂紅褐陶貼塑泥條，飾窩點紋為鱗。這兩件龍紋陶片都採用浮雕手法，一為蜷曲的尾部，一為盤旋的龍體。其形象和紋飾已具備中國古代龍形象的基本特徵。
查海遺址出土的類龍紋陶片
龍形堆石位於聚落中心，是很有象徵意義的。這裡是查海先民集會、祭祀的地方，屬於查海聚落的“聖地”。龍形堆石作為查海部落的標誌，能夠展現出強大的部落形象。查海部落“蛇—大蛇—龍—圖騰龍神”的形成與演變，可能就是傳統文化中龍圖騰形成過程的真實再現。
查海遺址出土了十分珍貴的玉器，其中有玉斧 7 件、玉鑿 7 件、玉玦 7 件、玉匕 13 件、玉管 6 件、小玉環 1 件等。這些玉器的質料均為透閃石、陽起石，全部為真玉。玉器加工中，琢磨、鑽孔、拋光技術已經相當成熟，玉器製成品小巧精緻，加工規整，實用性強，反映出北方地區新石器時代早期玉文化的特點。重要的是，查海玉器的年代是在 7000 年以前，較紅山文化要早一千年，證明這裡是我國遠古玉器的一個重要的發展階段。
查海遺址出土的玉斧
查海遺址出土的玉管和玉環
在玉器的用途方面，既有玉斧、玉鑿等生產用具，也有玉玦、玉管等生活裝飾品，還有一類是有特殊用途的，比如 7 號房址居室墓出土大、中、小三對玉匕，就可能是一種既能佩戴、又能治療疾病的用具，類似今天的刮痧玉片。查海的玉玦，有的出土于房址內的居室墓主人頭部兩側。這類墓葬的陪葬品不多，墓主人卻隨葬玉匕、玉玦，可能不是為了顯示財富，而表明玉器在這裡已初顯“德”和“禮”的功能。
查海遺址出土的玉匕
據研究，在北緯 40—50 度的東北亞地區，以遼寧西部為中心，有一個“玦文化圈”。此前遼河流域的興隆窪、白音察汗等遺址先後有玉玦出土，這次有 8000 年歷史的查海又出土了玉玦。查海玉玦年代早、數量多、功用特定、形制規範，堪稱玦文化的代表，閃爍著文明的火花，影響力遍及東北亞各地。
查海遺址出土的玉玦
查海的特殊意義
據文物考古工作者調查，在西遼河上游，以查海遺址為中心，周邊至少有 5 處（查海、他尺西溝、賈家溝西、程家梁、朝力馬）類型相同的遺址，從而構成了查海文化的遺址群。在查海遺址發現和發掘前後，考古工作者在查海西北 150 公里外的西拉木倫河南岸發掘了興隆窪遺址，從而確定了興隆窪文化。
查海遺址與興隆窪遺址屬同一個時代、地域接近，卻存在著文化的差異。研究者據此認定，兩遺址屬於兩個時空並存、相互依存的文化類型，因而把以查海遺址為代表的遺存稱做稱為查海文化。查海文化是紅山文化的直接源頭。之所以這樣認為，是因為無論從筒形陶器的形制與以壓印“之”字形紋為主的裝飾，還是玉器與龍形象的出現，以及選在風化基岩上構築房屋墓葬的習俗，紅山文化與查海文化都一脈相承。
查海遺址的文化內涵十分豐富，這既是遠古先民的智慧結晶，也是當時生產力水準的集中體現。目前考古學界有一種意見，認為可以把這個遺址作為距今8000年至7000年中國新石器時代文明進程的代表，因而將這一時期稱為“查海時代”。在這個時代裡，查海人製作和使用磨制石器、燒制陶器、建造房屋、重視喪葬，過著農耕定居的生活。
查海人已經有了原始的宗教概念，將崇拜的龍圖騰形象塑在陶器上，並用石塊將其擺塑在聚落中央；他們熟練地識別、加工、使用玉器，從而展現了歷史悠久的玉文化淵源。查海人還有了原始的藝術表現，比如陶罐上的“類龍紋”浮雕圖案。其中最典型的，是一個陶罐上的蟾蜍、蛇銜蟾蜍圖案：陶罐一側是逼真的單體蟾蜍浮雕，另一側是壓印出來的蛇銜蟾蜍（蛙）的形象，蟾蜍與蛇的比例勻稱，造型完美，實為上古雕塑佳品。
查海陶罐蟾蜍浮雕的拓片
查海蛇銜蟾蜍浮雕的拓片
根據發掘者的研究，查海遺址的動物形象有著象徵氏族崇拜的特殊含義。查海居民的平均壽命也就是 18-25 歲，最大年齡僅在 50 歲左右，故此祈求多子的生殖崇拜是最迫切的。選擇蟾蜍、蛇、龍等作為自己的氏族圖騰，希求人能夠具有蟾蜍那樣強大的繁殖能力，並希望借助龍、蛇、的強大實力來保護本族，大概是其塑造蟾蜍和龍蛇的真實含義，也由此可以推測查海所屬的部落是由蟾蜍和蛇兩個圖騰氏族構成的，他們又共同崇拜一個神祇，這就是那條巨龍。
總之，查海遺址的發現與發掘，出土的“中華萬年龍”、查海玉器等珍貴文物，為探討東北地區新石器時代文化體系、用玉文化的緣起與發展、龍崇拜的起源等提供了極為重要的資料，展現了中華文明多元一體、相容並蓄、綿延不斷的總體特徵，有力證明了西遼河流域同黃河流域、長江流域一樣，是中華文明的發源地之一。
（本文資料和圖片均來自《查海：新石器時代聚落遺址發掘報告》，特此致謝！）
作者介紹 (請至原網頁閱讀)
圖片 | 翟德芳
排版 | 小謝
設計 | 子彤
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「最老金字塔」報告引發爭議 - Dyani Lewis
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本欄《印尼金字塔可能改寫人類歷史》(11/09/23)所報導的考古發現被質疑；專家/學者正在調查原學術論文的真實性。
A 27,000-year-old pyramid? Controversy hits an extraordinary archaeological claim
The massive buried structures at Gunung Padang in Indonesia would be far older than Egypt’s great pyramids — if they’re even human constructions at all.
Dyani Lewis, 11/28/23
A headline-grabbing paper1 claiming that a structure in Indonesia is the oldest pyramid in the world has raised the eyebrows of some archaeologists — and has now prompted an investigation by the journal that published it, Nature has learnt.
The paper, published in the journal Archaeological Prospection on 20 October, garnered headlines around the world. Its central claim is that a pyramid lying beneath the prehistoric site of Gunung Padang in West Java, Indonesia, might have been constructed as far back as 27,000 years ago.
That would make it much older than first colossal Egyptian pyramid, the 4,600-year-old Pyramid of Djoser. It would also mean it pre-dates the oldest known megalithic site, Göbekli Tepe in Turkey, which was built by stone-masons around 11,000 years ago. And it would completely rewrite what is known about human civilization in the area. “The pyramid has become a symbol of advanced civilization,” says paper co-author Danny Hilman Natawidjaja, a geologist at the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) in Bandung, Indonesia. “It's not easy to build pyramids. You need high masonry skills,” he says.
It’s exactly such claims that have left many fellow researchers cold. Lutfi Yondri, an archaeologist at BRIN in Bandung, Indonesia, says his work has shown that people in the region inhabited caves between 12,000 and 6,000 years ago, long after the pyramid was supposedly built, and no excavations from this period have revealed evidence of sophisticated stonemasonry.
“I'm surprised [the paper] was published as is,” says Flint Dibble, an archaeologist at Cardiff University, UK. He says that although the paper presents “legitimate data”, its conclusions about the site and its age are not justified.
Shaky foundations
Gunung Padang comprises five stepped stone terraces, with retaining walls and connecting staircases, that sit atop an extinct volcano. Between 2011 and 2014, Natawidjaja and colleagues investigated the site using several ground-penetrating techniques to determine what lies beneath the terraces.
They identified four layers, which they conclude represent separate phases of construction. The innermost layer is a hardened lava core, which has been “meticulously sculpted”, according to the paper.
Subsequent layers of rocks “arranged like bricks” were built over the top of the oldest layer. The layers were carbon-dated, using soil lodged between rocks obtained from a core drilled out of the hill. The first stage of construction, according to the paper, occurred between 27,000 and 16,000 years ago. Further additions were made between 8,000 and 7,500 years ago, and the final layer, which includes the visible stepped terraces, was put in place between 4,000 and 3,100 years ago.
Dibble says that there is no clear evidence that the buried layers were built by humans and were not the result of natural weathering and movement of rocks over time. “Material rolling down a hill is going to, on average, orient itself,” he says. But Natawidjaja says that the column-shaped stones were too large and orderly to have simply rolled there: “The neatly arranged, shaped and massive nature of these rocks, some weighing up to 300 kilograms, dismisses the likelihood of transportation over significant distances.”
The authors also report finding a dagger-shaped stone. “This object’s regular geometry and distinct composition, and its materials unrelated to the surrounding rocks, signify its manmade origin,” says Natawidjaja. But Dibble says it’s unlikely that the rock was shaped by humans. There’s no evidence of “working or anything to indicate that it's man-made”, he says.
Extraordinary claims
The Gunung Padang site featured in the 2022 Netflix documentary Ancient Apocalypse, hosted by British author Graham Hancock, who promotes an idea that an advanced global civilization was wiped out 12,000 years ago at the end of the last ice age. The authors acknowledge Hancock for proofreading their paper.
Natawidjaja says that because Gunung Padang was constructed before the end of the last ice age, it shows that people from that time were capable of building complex structures, and “this makes it a very interesting monument”.
But Bill Farley, an archaeologist at Southern Connecticut State University in New Haven, says the paper has not provided evidence that an advanced civilization existed during the last ice age. The 27,000-year-old soil samples from Gunung Padang, although accurately dated, do not carry hallmarks of human activity, such as charcoal or bone fragments, he says. Archaeological records show that the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to complex societies occupying large settlements occurred after the commencement of the Holocene 11,700 years ago. The oldest known city is the 9,000 year old site of Çatalhöyük in what is now Turkey2.
Archaeological Prospection and its publisher, Wiley, have since launched an investigation into the paper. Eileen Ernenwein, an archaeological geophysicist at Tennessee State University in Johnson City, who is co-editor of the journal said in an e-mail to Nature: “The editors, including me, and Wiley ethics team are currently investigating this paper in accordance with Committee on Publication Ethics guidelines.” She declined to elaborate on the nature of the concerns raised.
Farley says that people should celebrate Gunung Padang for what it is — “an amazing, important and cool site” — rather than because it can be written into any particular narrative about the development of human civilization.
Natawidjaja says that he hopes the controversy does not cause animosity in the community. “We are really open to anyone researchers around the world would like to come to Indonesia and do some research programme on Gunung Padang,” he says. “We know very little about our human history.”
doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-03546-w
References
* Natawidjaja, D. H. et al. Archaeol. Prospect. https://doi.org/10.1002/arp.1912 (2023). Article Google Scholar
* Orton, D. et al. Antiquity 92, 620–639 (2018) Article Google Scholar
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本文於 修改第 2 次
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確認了！三星堆遺址祭祀坑年代 -- 安寧
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北京大學新聞網，11/17/23，資訊來源： 紅星新聞，編輯：安寧
16日，由四川省文物局主辦，四川省文物考古研究院、三星堆研究院、四川廣漢三星堆博物館承辦的“三星堆遺址考古多學科綜合研究成果研討會”在四川廣漢舉行。共有來自全國20個科研機構、大學院校的代表分享了關於考古發掘、文物保護、多學科研究、科技手段運用、設施設備創新等領域的最新成果。
年代！確認了
三星堆遺址祭祀區尤其是祭祀坑的年代一直沒有明確的結論，北京大學加速器質譜碳十四年代研究團隊在此次三星堆遺址祭祀坑發掘過程中從六個坑中共採集了200多個可供測年的樣品，進行了全面研究。根據目前考古發掘研究結果和碳十四測年所能達到的精度，初步可以判斷三星堆所發現的幾個祭祀坑形成年代處於商代晚期，並且形成時間大致相當。
三號坑埋藏行為所發生的時間：落在西元前1117年—西元前1012年之間的概率是95.4%，落在西元前1109年到西元前1016年之間的概率是68.3%；
四號坑埋藏行為所發生的時間：落在西元前1126年—西元前1016年之間的概率是94.1%，落在西元前1115年—西元前1054年之間的概率是68.3%；
六號坑埋藏行為所發生的時間：落在西元前1201年—西元前1019年之間的概率是95.4%，落在西元前1125年—西元前1054年之間的概率是68.3%；
八號坑埋藏行為所發生的時間：落在西元前1117年—西元前1015年之間的概率是95.4%，落在西元前1111年—西元前1020年之間的概率是68.3%。
青銅器科技分析 三星堆擁有獨特制泥芯技術
北京科技大學冶金考古團隊對三星堆一、二號坑出土青銅器殘留泥芯進行岩相觀察、化學成分分析。結果顯示三星堆青銅器面具/人像、神樹、其他非容器等本地風格特徵器物泥芯與容器類器物泥芯在化學成分及顯微結構上均存在較大差異，推測與產地不同相關，本地風格器物與容器類器物鑄造地不同。
上海博物院研究團隊通過X-ray CT成像技術研究了三星堆遺址出土的12件青銅器製作工藝，並與中原同時期青銅器製作工藝作比較研究。發現三星堆與中原青銅器的鑄造技術既有相似的共性，也有鮮明的個性。相似的共性為：1.陶範法鑄造；2.金屬墊片及定位泥芯撐技術；3.鑄接技術。鮮明的個性為：1.盲芯中普遍存在細長的長方體木條，是三星堆獨特制泥芯技術的反映；2.普遍使用了以青銅合金為焊料的鑄焊技術。
玉石器及青銅器產地來源分析
成都理工大學研究團隊通過相關區域示蹤調查與取樣鑒定，分析了大寶山礦區岩石的微量元素、稀土元素含量，研究三星堆大玉料、代表性玉石與玉料產地靶區的岩石的相關性。結果表明，三星堆大玉料與彭州蛇紋石的相關性較高。並在此基礎上對彭州銅礦進行調查取樣與地球化學測試分析研究其與三星堆青銅器的關聯性，通過微量元素示蹤法表明彭州銅礦與三星堆部分青銅器關聯性較大。
有機殘留物分析推斷：牛和豬是祭祀活動中使用的祭牲
西北大學研究團隊開展的有機殘留物分析研究表明，三、四、七、八號坑沉積物和陶片的脂肪酸結果顯示出動物脂肪的存在，部分樣品的蛋白質組學結果顯示出豬、牛兩種動物的存在，並推斷牛和豬最有可能是黃牛和家豬，祭祀坑形成前可能存在儀式性燎燒活動。西北大學的溫睿教授介紹，三星堆先民在祭祀活動中，使用豬、牛等動物作為祭牲，對銅器、金器、玉石器等器物進行毀器，後進行燎燒，最後將所有器物分批埋藏在祭祀坑內，其中動物祭牲骨骼是相對集中埋藏在其中一個坑（1號坑）中的，其他坑混入了少量骨渣及動物脂肪和蛋白的殘留物。使用祭牲是埋藏各種器物前儀式活動的一部分，與燎燒器物、毀器、分批埋藏共同組成了埋藏前的儀式活動。同時，根據從三星堆祭祀坑出土的器物角度，如銅尊、銅罍、牙璋、玉環等，專家普遍認為三星堆文化和中原文化聯繫緊密。
揭示三星堆遺址發現絲織品的組織結構和織造工藝
中國絲綢博物館的研究團隊在三星堆遺址首次深入揭示了這一古代文明的絲織品組織結構和織造工藝，確認了纖維材質為桑蠶絲的基礎上，對絲織物的組織結構和織造工藝進行了詳細研究。在三星堆遺址出土的絲織品中，平紋織物是最為普遍的組織結構，即絹，除此之外還觀察到了綺和斜編織物。就織造工藝而言，研究團隊提出了三種可能的織造方式，即原始腰機的織造方式、雙軸織機或踏板織機的織造方式、提花織機的織造方式。
焚燒實驗還原祭祀場景重要資料
為瞭解祭祀坑形成過程、人類行為、器物功能等問題，四川大學黎海超教授帶領團隊開展了K6木箱焚燒實驗、玉器模擬焚燒實驗以及銅鈴複製實驗。實驗初步發現木箱的焚燒效果與風向、風力關係密切，明顯受到自然環境的影響；木箱焚燒過程中的聲音、火焰、煙霧存在視覺、聽覺和嗅覺等感官衝擊，焚燒行為對觀眾造成的感受需特別關注；玉器焚燒實驗選擇和田玉、獨山玉和岫玉等材料，並以幹竹為燃料進行焚燒。結果表明，焚燒中幹竹消耗極快，且產灰量小，因祭祀坑灰燼層較厚，應是焚燒了極多的燃料，場面宏大；在燃燒全過程中，幹竹子不斷發出爆竹炸裂聲，具有強烈的聽覺意義。
玉石在實際焚燒中受熱所形成的變化更複雜，與實驗室內馬弗爐加熱所形成的變化可能有一定的差異。通過複製三星堆祭祀坑銅鈴，討論銅鈴的鑄造技術、音樂性能、功能、組合、使用等問題。實驗探索出一套運用三維掃描、3D列印等技術複製銅鈴的流程，初步測音結果表明，銅鈴尺寸與音色關係密切。較小的銅鈴聲音清脆，最大的銅鈴聲音似編鐘。若加入更多尺寸的銅鈴，或有演奏旋律的可能。
“零的突破”：完整保護象牙標本6根
出土糟朽象牙的整體保護是世界性難題。荊州文物保護中心研究表明，祭祀坑出土象牙不同程度存在糟朽、飽水、殘缺、斷裂、裂隙、變色、片狀脫落、表麵粉化剝、黴害等病害。河南省考古研究院研究團隊研發製備出了適用飽水糟朽象牙文物的保護材料及相關保護工藝，破解了考古出土飽水糟朽象牙文物脫水加固保護難題；建立了飽水糟朽象牙長久穩定的預防性保護系統。迄今為止，採用該項新成果已處理不同糟朽狀態的象牙標本6根，實現了考古出土飽水糟朽象牙整根完整保護“零的突破”，為考古出土飽水糟朽骨角質文物的保護修復與活化利用貢獻了“中國方案”。
四川省文物考古研究院三星堆遺址工作站站長冉宏林介紹，後續的田野考古工作還將繼續深入探索三星堆遺址，這座古蜀國都城的內部格局，包括它的城門、道路、水路格局，宮殿區、作坊區、墓地，還有一般的居住區，這些非常重要的功能區，它們的所在位置和關係，以及內部細節構成。從而逐步揭示出當時居住在三星堆遺址裡邊的人群，他們的衣食住行、生產生活的具體細節，以及他們的生產管理的體系模式，甚至是他們人群的社會屬性，包括它的族群等級、身份、職責等等這樣一些內容，能夠讓大家全方位地，比較生動地去瞭解到3000多年前古蜀人他們的日常和國家運轉的模式。還需要瞭解三星堆遺址它所代表的古蜀文明，和中原文明、長江中下游文明和甘青地區的文明，它們之間的相互聯繫和相互交流溝通的具體情況，通過這些進而認識中華文明之所以能夠呈現出來多元一體和絢麗多彩格局的一個深層次的原因。
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三星堆文化文物展 -- Christy Choi
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以下這篇文章，介紹目前在香港展示的三星堆文化文物；請至原網頁參看相關圖片。
目前考古學研究和/或文化研究成果，是否建立起中國各地區出土文物完整的縱向(傳承)與橫向(傳播)關係，我並不知道。因此，這篇報導中記者所引用強森(張彦)先生的話，我不能說毫無道理。但是，以他一個帝國主義者後裔或餘孽的身份做這種評論，顯然有馬不知臉長的毛病。
Faces of Sanxingdui’: Bronze Age relics shed light on mysterious ancient kingdom
Christy Choi, CNN, 11/16/23
Editor’s Note: A version of this story appeared in CNN’s Meanwhile in China newsletter, a three-times-a-week update exploring what you need to know about the country’s rise and how it impacts the world. Sign up here.
Hong KongCNN — A golden face with patinaed turquoise eyes stares out of the darkness. Illuminated around it stand three other bronze heads — some have flat tops, others round — all looked over by a giant bronze statue almost 9 feet high. All have the same piercing, angular eyes.
There’s something about the “Faces of Sanxingdui” — as this collection of sculptures is being billed — that feels both familiar and alien. Currently on display at the Hong Kong Palace Museum, they may appear Mayan or Aztec to the untrained eye, but these over-3,000-year-old sculptures weren’t unearthed anywhere near Mesoamerica’s ancient civilizations. They were discovered on China’s Chengdu Plain, at an archeological dig site called Sanxingdui (which translates as “three star mound”).
Thought to be the largest and oldest site left by the Shu kingdom, a civilization in southwestern China once only hinted at in myths and legends, Sanxingdui was not discovered until the 1920s, when a farmer stumbled across objects while digging an irrigation ditch. The site has since been found to contain the ruins of an ancient city made up of residences, sacrificial pits and tombs enclosed by high dirt walls. Archaeologists from the Sanxingdui Museum say the city was established some 4,800 to 2,800 years ago, until it was abandoned around 800 BC for unknown reasons.
The Chinese government has long promoted Sanxingdui as evidence of the country’s long, uninterrupted history — with the discoveries included in history textbooks for more than a decade. And while thousands of visitors have already flocked to the groundbreaking exhibition in Hong Kong, some analysts suggest that the items are also being used to support the Chinese government’s vision of national identity.
The mysterious and talented Shu
The Shu kingdom, which emerged in the Sichuan basin during the Bronze Age, is believed to have developed independently of the Yellow River Valley societies traditionally considered the cradle of Chinese civilization. Its inhabitants created exquisitely crafted bronze, jade, gold and ceramic objects, depicting fantastical beasts, kings, gods and shamans with bulging eyes and enlarged ears.
Around 120 of the items are currently on display in Hong Kong, and it’s the first time many of these objects, most of which were excavated between 2019 and 2022, have been showcased outside Sichuan province.
Remarkably, the sculptures predate the Terracotta Army, a collection of earthenware statues depicting the armies of China’s first emperor Qin Shi Huang, by at least 1,000 years. Wang Shengyu, an assistant curator at the Palace Museum told CNN said the objects are far more advanced, imaginative, and artistic than those being produced anywhere else in China at that time.
“You can tell that it’s very sculptural and very artsy,” Wang told CNN at the exhibition opening, pointing to a roughly 1-foot-tall bronze figure whose fantastical, braided hair extends out to three times the height of its body and, had it not been broken, would stretch much further. “You can imagine how magnificent it was. From above his nose and all the way up, it would’ve been over 1.5 meters (4.9 feet) tall, according to the fragments (archeologists) found. The end of the pigtail is on his shoulder.”
Little is known about the Shu kingdom other than what’s been discovered on the 3.6-square-kilometer (1.4-square-mile) site outside Chengdu. There is no evidence of a written Shu language, and historical literature contains scant information about its culture other than a handful of myths and legends, including a reference to a Shu king called Can Cong whose eyes were said to have protruded — perhaps explaining why so many of the 13,000 relics recovered from the site feature bulging eyes.
After the Shu state was conquered by the Qin dynasty in 316 BC, Shu culture was “buried” under the “mainstream” culture that later emerged on China’s central plain, Chinese authorities wrote in a 2013 UNESCO submission seeking to have Sanxingdui and two nearby archeological sites recognized as World Heritage Sites. They are currently on UNESCO’s “tentative list.”
Since 1986, eight excavated pits at Sanxingdui have yielded giant masks of gods with bulbous, insect-like eyes and protruding ears, mythical creatures with gaping mouths and an almost 4-meter-tall (13-foot) bronze “tree of life” sculpture decorated with ornaments like a Christmas tree. All the items were found shattered, burned and buried, leading experts to believe the pits were used for ritual sacrifices. Some have now been painstakingly re-constructed by archaeologists. “It took 10 years to reconstruct the tree,” said Wang Shengyu, an assistant curator at the museum who helped curate the exhibition.
That tree is not on show in Hong Kong, as it is considered too precious to send abroad, but a section of one of six others discovered and ornaments are on display at the museum, as well as a 3D holographic projection of what experts think it would have looked like – its layers and branches adorned with birds, flowers, fruit, dragons, bells as well as jade and gold foil ornaments. The set are thought to have been part of a theater space.
‘Historical myth’ of a continuous civilization
The exhibition places these items in the context of other ancient civilizations and includes the Shu among the many societies to have existed in the country’s “5,000-year history.” According to a press release from organizers, museum and Hong Kong government officials at the opening stressed the “continuity, inventiveness, unity, inclusiveness and emphasis on peace and harmony” of Chinese history.
Henry Tang, chairman of the governing body behind the West Kowloon Cultural District (where the Palace Museum is located) and a former candidate for Hong Kong’s top leadership role, said in a statement that the district and museum are looking to “promote cultural and artistic exchanges between China and the world, ‘tell China’s story well’, and strengthen the public’s cultural self-confidence.”
But the narrative that the Shu kingdom was innately Chinese is contentious, according to Ian Johnson, a senior fellow for China Studies at US think tank, the Council on Foreign Relations.
“Over the past few decades, the (Chinese Communist Party) has been trying to push a historical myth that all the peoples who have ever lived inside the current borders of the People’s Republic are ‘Chinese,’” he told CNN over email.
“The basic idea is that the PRC (People’s Republic of China) encompasses people who naturally belong together and therefore, from today’s standpoint, form a nation. Hence any effort to have autonomy or even independence is taboo — it runs against history.”
The People’s Republic of China was established in 1949, and its government has often used China’s continuous history as evidence that ethnic groups such as the Tibetans and the Uyghurs have always belonged to China.
Johnson said that there was little support for the idea that civilizations along the Yellow River had much in common with those in the Sichuan Basin.
“They have commonalities but are not the same — just as ancient Assyrians and Phoenicians and Greeks weren’t the same, even if they shared certain things in common,” he said, adding: “sponsoring these kinds of exhibitions are popular and win the government credit.”
When asked to comment, the Hong Kong Palace Museum said the exhibition was “curated based on academic and archaeological research” and that it reinforces its mission to deepen audiences’ “understanding of the lives and cultures of various regions and ethnic groups as well as exchanges among them in ancient China, which have contributed to the magnificence of China’s civilization and its ‘diversity in unity’ pattern of development.”
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古城故事 – Joel Day
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請參見本欄上一篇《《古城故事》讀後》。
Ancient Chinese city mystery unlocked after evidence of 'human sacrifice' unearthed
The ancient site offers a captivating glimpse into China's long-lost ancient culture - and reveals a darker side to the region's past.
JOEL DAY, 11/15/23
Shimao (石峁) sits in China's far north, an ancient settlement that likely played a central role in the region's culture and trade thousands of years ago.
Archaeologists believe it played this role during the early Xia Dynasty, and was once referred to as the "Stone City" given its advanced fortifications and installations.
Thriving for over three centuries, Shimao dates back to 2000 BC and is the largest known walled site of that period of China.
Researchers originally believed that the city's fortifications were once a part of the Great Wall, but on discovering pieces of jade, realised that they had found a Neolithic-era settlement.
Perhaps the darkest of all the discoveries made at the site have been in the piles of human bones, hinting at a culture of human sacrifice, and the first of its kind in China.
Before excavations were briefly suspended due to the coronavirus pandemic, archaeologists uncovered 70 beautiful relief sculptures in stone, impressions of serpents, monsters, and half-human beasts similar to Bronze Age icons found in China.
Radiocarbon dating astonished the researchers when they found much to date from 4,300 years ago, making it nearly 2,000 years older than the first section of the Great Wall, and 500 years before the Chinese civilisation (千島湖) emerged in the Central Plains to the south.
The most grisly of all the discoveries came underneath the city's eastern wall in the form of 80 human skulls clustered in six pits.
No skeletons were attached to any of the skulls, and their number and placement suggest a ritual beheading was committed during the laying of the wall's foundation.
The earliest known example of human sacrifice in Chinese history, forensic scientists determined that almost all of the victims were young girls, most likely prisoners who belonged to a rival group.
Li Min, an archaeologist at the University of California, Los Angeles, who has visited and written extensively about Shimao, told National Geographic: "The scale of ritual violence observed at Shimao was unprecedented in early China."
The skulls, according to Li, preempted what would become a culture of human sacrifice and a "defining attribute of Shang civilisation" many centuries afterwards before dynasties eventually put an end to the practice.
Skulls are just one indication that the gates to the city marked the entrance to another world, for anyone crossing the threshold would have been amazed at the relatively advanced architecture.
Stone blocks in the high terrace walls were carved with lozenge designs to make them appear like giant eyes gazing down at the East Gate.
And, wedged into the stone walls at regular intervals were thousands of pieces of black and dark green jade, ornaments that shimmered in the sun and warded off the evil eye and displayed the power and wealth of the Shimao elites.
It wasn't an insular society, however, and the vast wealth of jade artefacts found at the site suggests Shimao — which had no natural jade of its own — had distant trading partners.
Ideas, technology, and goods are thought to have been exchanged from a host of other cultures across modern-day China, from the Altai steppe to the north to coastal regions near the Yellow Sea.
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下面這篇文章以活人祭為介紹石峁文化的切入點。
該文化(約公元前2,000年)是龍山文化(約公元前3,000年 – 1,900年)的晚期。從以玉和菱形圖樣來裝飾城牆，可以看出石峁人的富裕與文化水平高度。從貿易範圍的廣度 – 阿爾泰山到黃海之濱 – 來看，交通工具與附屬產業(旅館、餐飲)在當時應該也非常發達。
該文沒有報導其它的文化面向，如「文字」。有待學者將石峁文化和其它同時期與鄰近的「文化」做個連接和比對，才能對中華文化有更全面、更深入的了解。
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